04 Steel Construction

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STEEL CONSTRUCTION
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Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
Structural Steel Shapes 4.1
Structural Steel Framing The most common shapes of structural steel used in buildings are the American
Standard Steel Shapes such as:
Steel Columns &
Connections
1. Square Bars
Steel Beams & 2.
Connection
3. Round Bars
Open-Web Steel Joists
4. Plate Bars
Metal Decking
Steel Trusses and Rigid 5. Angle Bars

Frames
Structural Steel Framing

6. Channels – The standard channel has the shape of unsymmetrical balance
Systems consisting of two flanges on one side. It requires lateral support to prevent its
tendency to buckle. Channels are generally used as parts of built-up sections
Joining of Steel
Members
for columns and are also suitable for framing around floor openings, spandrels
and lintels attributed to the absence of flanges on the other side. The channel
section is identified as C 15 x 20 which means that the channel has a depth of
20 cm and weights 15 kg per meter length.
7. I-Beams – The use of a standard I-beam as a column is uneconomical

because the whirl or revolving action of the member about an axis through the
centroid of the web is comparatively small.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.1 7. Tee Beams

8. H-Columns
Steel Columns &
Connections 9. Wide Flanges – Wide Flange sections are designated as W 12 x 24 which
Steel Beams &
mean that the flange has a depth of 24 cm and weighs 12 kg per meter
Connection length. All wide flange sections are generally with parallel face flange
except those with 5% slope inside face produced by Bethlehem Steel
Company. Comparatively, wide flange sections are more efficient than
Metal Decking standard I-beams with respect to bending resistance.
Steel Trusses and Rigid
Frames
10. Zees – The zee section is another structural form in a letter Z which is not
frequently used in building construction except for the fabrication of steel
Structural Steel Framing windows and other frames.
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0 4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
Structural Steel Shapes 4.1 W-SHAPE (WIDE FLANGE) – hot-
rolled structural steel section having
an H-shape with wide flanges.
Steel Columns &
Connections M-SHAPE –similar to but
not classified as a W-shape.
Steel Beams &
Connection

HP-SHAPE – has flanges
and web of equal thickness
Metal Decking and used as a load-bearing
pile.
Frames
S-SHAPE (American
Systems Standard Beam) – I-
shape with sloped inner
Joining of Steel flange surfaces.
Members
AMERICAN STANDARD
CHANNEL – a rectangular C-
shape with sloped inner flange
surfaces.
MISCELLANEOUS
CHANNEL– a rectangular C-
shape with sloped inner flange
surfaces.
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0 4.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
STRUCTURAL TUBING – a hollow structural
Structural Steel Shapes
4.1 steel shape of square, rectangular, or circular
Structural Steel Framing cross section.
STANDARD PIPE – a structural steel pipe
Steel Columns & of standard weight and wall thickness.
Connections
EXTRA-STRONG PIPE – a structural steel
Steel Beams &
pipe with increased wall thickness.
Connection
Open-Web Steel Joists DOUBLE-EXTRA-STRONG PIPE – a

structural steel pipe with wall thickness
Metal Decking greater than that of extra-strong-pipe.
Frames EQUIVALENT ROUND – diameter of a
circle having a circumference equal to
Structural Steel Framing the perimeter of a non-circular tube.
Systems
PLATE – thin, flat piece of metal of
Joining of Steel uniform thickness.
Members
CHECKERED PLATE – steel or cast-
iron plate with waffle-like pattern.
SHEET METAL – thin metal sheets/plates
used in ductwork, flashing, and roofing.
CORRUGATED METAL – sheet metal

rolled into parallel ridges and furrows for
additional mechanical strength.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

ANGLE (ANGLE IRON) – L-shaped
steel section. Designated by prefix
Steel Columns & L. then length of each leg, then
Connections thickness.
Steel Beams & EQUAL LEG ANGLE – angle iron

Connection having legs of equal length.
UNEQUAL LEG ANGLE – angle iron
having legs of unequal length.
Metal Decking
DOUBLE ANGLE – consisting of a
pair of angles joined back to back.
Frames

STRUCTURAL TEE – cut from W,
Systems
S, or M-shape and having a T-
Joining of Steel shape.
Members TEE (T-BAR) – a rolled metal bar
having a T-shaped cross section.
ZEE (Z-BAR) – a rolled metal
bar having a Z-shaped cross
section with internal right angles.
BAR – a square, rectangular or other
simple cross-steel section shape.
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
Structural Steel Framing EXPANDED METAL – mesh or latticed sheet

metal used as lath.
Steel Columns &
Connections BLACKPLATE – cold-rolled sheet steel before
cleaning, used for coating with zinc, tin or
Steel Beams & torne metal.
Connection
GAUGE / GAGE – a standard for designating
Open-Web Steel Joists the thickness/diameter of an object.
Metal Decking
Steel Trusses and Rigid WIRE GAUGE– determines the diameter of

Frames wire or thickness of sheet metal.
Systems
WIRE CLOTH – a fabric of woven metallic
Joining of Steel wire used in screens, sleeves, or the like.
Members
HARDWARE CLOTH – a galvanized steel wire

cloth with a mesh between 0.25 – 0.50 in.
MESH – the number of opening per inch in wire
cloth.
WIRE ROPE – a heavy rope made of strands

twisted around a central core.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

I-BEAM
Steel Columns & a rolled metal beam having a cross section resembling the
Connections
capital letter ‘I’.
Steel Beams &
Connection
FLANGE – a pair of ridges at right
Open-Web Steel Joists angles from the edge of a structural
shape to strengthen or stiffen it.
Metal Decking
WEB – an integral part
Steel Trusses and Rigid of a beam that forms a
Frames rigid connection
between flanges, etc.
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
4.1 STRUCTURAL
Structural Steel Shapes 4.1 OPEN-WEB STEEL
STEEL SHAPES JOIST (BAR JOIST)
– a lightweight steel
Steel Columns & joist having an open
Connections web. LH- and DLH-
Series joists have
Steel Beams & heavier web and
Connection
chord member
Open-Web Steel Joists compared
JOIST to K-Series
GIRDER –a
joist.
trussed girder for
Metal Decking supporting open-web
COVER PLATE – a plate
Steel Trusses and Rigid fastened to the flanges of a steel joists.
Frames plate girder to increase
strength.
Systems FLANGE ANGLE – one of
the angles forming the top
Joining of Steel PLATE GIRDER – a
or bottom flange of a plate
Members built-up steel girder that
girder.
are welded or riveted
WEB PLATE – a steel plate together.
forming the web of a plate
girder.
SHEAR PLATE – a plate

fastened to the web of a
plate girder to increase
strength.
STIFFENER – vertical BEARING STIFFENER – a

angles fastened on each stiffener angle for the web of
side of a web plate to a plate girder placed under a
stiffen it against concentrated load.
buckling. INTERMEDIATE
STIFFENER – a stiffener
angle for the web of a plate
girder for increased BOX GIRDER – a built-up
resistance to diagonal stress steel beam with a hollow,
. rectangular cross section .
CASTELLATED BEAM – a
steel beam with increased
depth without increasing its
weight.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

4.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING
Structural Steel Framing 4.2
Primary beam or Structural steel
girder
Steel Columns & elements are used to
Connections Secondary beams
construct a skeleton
Steel Beams & frame similar to wood
Connection post-and-beam
construction.
Metal Decking
Beams may be:
Frames
Beam supported
Column supported
Structural Steel Framing Wall supported
Systems Steel framing is most
efficient when it is laid out
Joining of Steel along a regular grid
Members
To resist lateral wind or
earthquake forces, shear
planes, diagonal bracing, or
For non-bearing or curtain rigid frames with moment-
wall option resisting connection can be
used.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTIONS
Steel Columns &

Connections
Column or beam support:
Connection usually use transitional elements, such as angles, tees, or
Steel Beams & plates; may be riveted, but more often bolted and/or welded.
Connection
I. beam(S) shapes have been
Open-Web Steel Joists largely superseded by the more
structurally efficient wide-flange
Metal Decking
(W) shapes. Beams may also be
Steel Trusses and Rigid in the form of channel (C)
Frames sections, structural tubing, or
For column shapes and wall framing. composite sections.
Structural Steel Framing Long spans may be framed with
Systems built-up plate girders, castellated
beams, trusses, or rigid-frame
Joining of Steel
Members bents.
Steel base plates are required to distribute
concentrated columns loads to their
concrete foundation.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
STRUCTURAL STEEL SLAB SYSTEMS
Lateral-load carrying
Structural Steel Framing 4.2 mechanisms are
required in both
Steel Columns & directions
Connections
Steel Beams & Each part of closely-spaced external columns supports

Connection a long-span beam. This system is suitable for long,
narrow buildings, especially when a column-free space
Open-Web Steel Joists is desired.
ONE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM
Metal Decking
Girder
Beams
Frames

Systems Typical span range for
beams is 20’-60’, for spans
Joining of Steel beyond 32’, open web steel
Members joist are an economical
alternative Framing beams
6’ to 15’ beam spacing, into girders
minimizes floor 2-layer system increases
depending on floor on
floor deck depths; floor depth considerably but
provides more space for
Generally, steel framing should utilize rectangular
mechanical services.
bay units, with comparatively lightly loaded
beams spanning further than more heavily loaded
girders.
TWO-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

STRUCTURAL STEEL SLAB SYSTEMS
Structural Steel Framing 4.2
Steel Columns &

Connections
Primary
Steel Beams & beams
Connection Secondary
beams
Metal Decking
Steel Trusses and Rigid TRIPLE BEAM SYSTEM

Frames

Systems Long-span
member
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
4.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING
Structural steel girders, beams, and columns are used to construct a
Structural Steel Framing 4.2 skeleton frame for structures ranging in size from one-story to
Steel Columns & skyscrapers. Because structural steel is difficult to work with on site, it
Connections is normally cut, shaped, and drilled in a fabrication shop according to
design specifications; this can result in relatively fast, precise
Steel Beams &
Connection construction of a structural frame. Structural steel may be left exposed
in unprotected non-combustible construction, but because steel can
Open-Web Steel Joists lose strength rapidy in a fire, fire-rated assemblies or coatings are
Metal Decking required to qualify as fire-resistive construction.
The three major types of framing systems are the following:
Frames 4.2.1 One-Way Beam System – each
pair of external columns supports a
Systems long-spanning beam or girders. This
form of construction is suitable for
Joining of Steel long, narrow buildings, especially
Members
when a column-free space is desired.
The absence of columns in the interior
is an advantage in structures such as
car parks, as freedom from
obstruction makes for greater and
safer maneuverability, besides
allowing the layout of the parking
spaces to be altered at any time.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
4.2.2 Two-Way Beam System – a two-layer system, where beams
Structural Steel Shapes frame into girders, increases floor depth considerably and provides
Structural Steel Framing 4.2 more space for mechanical systems. Steel girders span the short axis
of a building bay thus contributing to the lateral stability of the structure.
Steel Columns &
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.2.3 Three-Way Beam System – is used when a large column-
Structural Steel Framing 4.2 free space is required, where long-spanning plate girders or
trusses can be used to carry the primary beam, which in turn
Steel Columns &
Connections support a layer of secondary beams.
Steel Beams &
Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.3 STEEL COLUMNS AND CONNECTIONS

Steel Columns &

4.3.1 STEEL COLUMNS
4.3
Connections
Steel Beams &

Steel columns are of the following types:
Connection
a. Struts of one or two angles. These
Open-Web Steel Joists are used for compression members in
roof trusses, light towers, and lattice
Metal Decking
girders. The two angles of a double
Steel Trusses and Rigid struts are riveted together by rivets
Frames driven through washers placed
Structural Steel Framing between the two angles at intervals of
Systems 4 to 6 ft.
Joining of Steel
Members
b. Starred angles of two or four
connected by batten plate spaced at
intervals of 3 to 4ft. These are used
to support the light loads.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes c. Latticed Columns made up of channels or

angles connected by lattice bars are often
used where light loads are to be supported on
Steel Columns &
4.3
long columns.
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection

d. Rolled H-columns. These are obtainable
Metal Decking with depths ranging from 6” to 16” and are
now commonly used instead of built-up
Frames columns in steel skeleton construction.
Systems
e. Built-up Columns. These are usually of H-shaped section formed by a
Joining of Steel combination of plates and angles although box columns with two or more
Members
webs are not uncommonly used in heavy building frames.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
f. Top Chord sections of heavy trusses are
Structural Steel Shapes usually unsymmetrical and are made of two
Structural Steel Framing rolled or built-up channel sections and a cover
plate. The open (bottom) side of the section is
Steel Columns & latticed.
4.3
Connections
Steel Beams & g. Columns for bents are sometimes made up

Connection of a pair of channels and an I – beam with batten
Open-Web Steel Joists plates at intervals of 3 to 4 ft. connecting the
flanges of the channels. Columns made of four
Metal Decking angles and a web-plate are commonly used in
Steel Trusses and Rigid mill building bents.
Frames
Structural Steel Framing h. Battened columns are those in which two

Systems component parts of the column are connected
Joining of Steel
only by batten plates. They are decidedly
Members inferior to latticed columns and should be
avoided if a continuous plate or latticing can be
used instead.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.3.2 LALLY COLUMNS

These are columns made up of a cylindrical steel
Steel Columns & pipe shell filled with 1:1-1/2:3 Portland cement
4.3
Connections
concrete. The standard type of lally column is
Steel Beams & reinforced with only the steel pipe shell. Special
Connection types of columns are obtainable with additional
Open-Web Steel Joists reinforcement consisting of steel pipe,
reinforcing bars or structural steel shapes. The
Metal Decking light weight column is 4” in outside diameter with
Steel Trusses and Rigid a shell thickness of 0.134”, while the heavy-
Frames weight columns are from 3-1/2 to 12-3/4 inches
in outside diameter with shell thicknesses of
Systems 0.216 to 0.375 inches.
Joining of Steel
Members 4.3.3 COMPOSITE COLUMNS
These are columns in which a concrete core is further reinforced with a

steel or cast-iron core designed to support a part of the load. Steel
cores may be structural H-sections or four angles, latticed or battened;
cast-iron cores are usually either solid shafts or hollow pipe sections.
The column may be further reinforced by vertical rods or bars placed
at the circumference and enclosed by spirals.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction 4.3.4 STEEL COLUMN CONNECTIONS
Steel Columns &

4.3
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.4 STEEL BEAMS AND CONNECTIONS

Steel Columns & 4.4.1 STEEL BEAMS

Connections
Steel Beams &

Steel beams may be rolled in the shape of the letter I (I-beams), channel
4.4 beams or angles. Beams of T shape were formerly used but have now
Connection
been restricted to minor uses. The I-beam is the ideal type of steel beam.
The horizontal portion is the web. Channels are sections of this shape:
Metal Decking They vary in depth from 3” to 15”, and in weight from 4.1lb. per ft. to 55lb.
per ft.
Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Girders may be built up of angles and plates riveted together for long spans
Structural Steel Shapes and for unusual cases of very heavy loading. Those are of two types:
Steel Columns &

a. Plate Girders. A plate girder is a beam
Connections
composed of a wide plate, known as a
Steel Beams &
4.4 web, at the top and bottom of which are
Connection
riveted angles and plates. The simplest
Open-Web Steel Joists type of plate girder consists of a web and
four flange angles. If this does not give
Metal Decking
sufficient flange area, cover plates may be
Steel Trusses and Rigid added. The web may be frequently
Frames reinforced against buckling by angles
riveted to its sides, known as stiffener
Systems angles.
Joining of Steel
Members
b. Box Girders. This is a built up
beam in which more than one web
plate is used.
Structural Steel
4.0 Beams and girders may be connected to columns by either seated connections or
Construction
framed connections.
Structural Steel Shapes In a seated connection the bottom flange of the beam rests on and is field-riveted
to an angle shop-riveted to the flange or web of the column. Another angle is field-
Structural Steel Framing riveted to the column and to the top flange of the beam.
In a framed connection the web of the beam or girder is connected by angles or by
Steel Columns &
Connections gusset-plates to the column. In framed connections, angle seats are usually shop-
riveted to the columns to hold the beam or girder during erection.
Steel Beams &
4.4
Connection 4.4.2 STEEL BEAM CONNECTIONS
Moment Connections – AISC Type 1 – also called Rigid Frame
Metal Decking connections are able to hold their original angle under loading by developing
a specified resisting moment, usually by means of plates welded or bolted to
Frames the beam flanges and the supporting column.

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction 2. Shear Connections – AISC Type 2 – Simple Frame connections are made
Structural Steel Shapes to resist only shear and are free to rotate under gravity loads. Shear walls or
diagonal bracing is required for lateral stability of the structure.
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

4.4
Connection
Metal Decking

Frames
3. Semi Rigid Connections – AISC Type 3 – Semi-Rigid Frame
Structural Steel Framing connections assume beam and girder connections possess a limited but
Systems
known moment resisting capacity.
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
STEEL BEAM GIRDER CONNECTIONS
Structural Steel Shapes Welded wed
stiffeners
Splice plate bolted to
top flanges of girder and
beams; in heu of plate,
Steel Columns & Girder Girder
weld flanges
Connections
Steel Beams & Shear carried by plates welded

4.4 to girder web and bolted to
Connection Beam continuous over girder;
beam web
bolts to keep beam from shifting
Open-Web Steel Joists Plate welded to girder
web and bolted to Small opening may be cut or drilled in web; large
Metal Decking bottom flange of beam openings weaken web in shear and require
stiffening or reinforcement
Steel Trusses and Rigid MOMENT CONNECTIONS – Continuity in beam flanges is required
Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
All- welded connections

are aesthetically
pleasing, especially
when ground smooth,
but they can be very
Angels bolted or welded to webs of girder
expensive to fabricate
and beams; for the top of the girder, the
beams top flange is coped or cut away
SHEAR CONNECTION
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

4.5 OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS
Open web joists are lightweight, shop fabricated steel members having a
Steel Columns & trussed web. A K series joist has a web consisting of a single bent bar,
Connections running in a zigzag pattern between the upper and lower chords. The LH
Steel Beams & and DLH series joists have heavier web and chord members and are for
Connection increased loads and spans.
Open-Web Steel Joists 4.5
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
OPEN WEB JOIST FLOOR SYSTEM
Floor deck spans between joists
•Linear support steel Mechanical services can pass •Planar support

through opening in web. Masonry wall
beam or girder
Ceiling may be attached to bottom chords
or be suspended if additional space for
Floor decking typically services is required; ceiling may also be
omitted to expose joists and floor deck
consist of concrete
ever metal decking.
Precast concrete,
plywood, or wood
planking can also be
used
d
x cee
t e
d no
l Masonry wall support
Steel beam or ou
n sh
joist girder a Horizontal or diagonal
sp pth
oist de bridging required
Limited overhangs J st
possible with x joi
extensions of top 24
chords
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

4.6 METAL DECKING
Metal decking are corrugated steel panels used as a working platform
Steel Columns & during construction and eventually as formwork for sitecast concrete
Connections slab. The decking panels are secured with puddle-welds or shear welded
Steel Beams & through the decking to the supporting steel joists or beams. The panels
Connection are fastened to each other along their sides with screws, weld, or button
punching standing seams. If the deck is to serve as a structural
diaphragm and transfer lateral loads to shear walls, its entire perimeter is
Metal Decking 4.6 welded to steel supports. In addition, more stringent requirements to
support and side lap fastening may apply. There are three major types of
Frames metal decking:

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
4.6.1 Form Decking – serves as a
Structural Steel Shapes permanent formwork for a reinforced
concrete slab until the slab can
support itself and its live load.
Steel Columns &
Connections 4.6.2 Composite Decking –
serves as a tensile reinforcement
Steel Beams &
Connection
for the concrete slab to which it is
bonded with embossed rib pattern.
Open-Web Steel Joists Composite action between the
Metal Decking 4.6
concrete slab and the floor beams
or joists can be achieved by
Steel Trusses and Rigid welding shear studs through the
Frames
decking to the supporting beam
Structural Steel Framing below.
Systems
4.6.3 Cellular Decking – is
Joining of Steel manufactured by welding a
Members
corrugated sheet to a flat steel sheet,
forming a series of spaces or
raceways for electrical and
communications wiring; special
cutouts are available for floor outlets.
The decking may serve as an
acoustic ceiling when the perforated
cells are filled with glass fiber.
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
LIGHT GAUGE STEEL JOIST FLOOR SYSTEM
Structural Steel Framing Planar support:

Linear support: Punched holes reduce
Metal stud or
Steel beam or channel joist weight and allow concrete/masonry
Steel Columns &
the passage of small foundation wall
Connections
plumbing and electrical
Metal decking or
lines
Steel Beams & wood panel
Connection subfloor

Joist are spaced 16”, 24, or 48” o.c.,
Metal Decking 4.6 depending load and type of decking used.
Steel Trusses and Rigid Connection may be bolted, screwed, or welded.

Frames
1 ½” min. bearing at joist ends; 3” min,
Structural Steel Framing bearing at interior supports
Systems
Strap bridging at 5’ to 8’ o.c, depending on
joist span
Joining of Steel
Members Overhangs and
floor opening are
framed in a
manner similar LIGHT GAUGE JOISTS
to wood joist
floors
Web stiffeners are required
where concentrated loads Nailable joist “C” joist Joist closure
might cripple joist webs,
such as at joist ends, or Depths: 6, 8, 9,10, 12 inches – nominal
over interior support Flange widths: 1 5/8, 1 ¾, 1 7/8, 2”, 2 ½”
Gauges: 14 through 22
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Framing Decking
Steel Columns & Double Decking Perimeter

Connections channel channel
Steel Beams &

Connection
Open-Web Steel Joists Web stiffener

Framing angle
Steel joist Steel joist
Metal Decking 4.6
Metal stud wall Metal stud wall
Steel Trusses and Rigid INTERIOR BEARING EXTERIOR BEARING

Frames Metal stud wall
Decking Decking Anchor bolt
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members Web stiffener
Clip angle
3” min
Steel joist
bearing
Conc. Foundation
Steel joist continuous over Double joist under wall
beam or wall support partition loads
INTERIOR BEARING EXTERIOR BEARING

Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Decking Perimeter
Connection
channel
Double or nested
Joist
Metal Decking 4.6
Steel Trusses and Rigid Web stiffener

Frames
Foundation
Structural Steel Framing Double joist Perimeter Steel joist clip
Systems or web channel
stiffeners
Joining of Steel over support
Members
FLOOR PROJECTION EXTERIOR BEARING
AND OPENINGS
STEEL FRAME WALLS
These walls may be supported by:
• The columns alone
• The columns as well as by spandrel
beams or the edges of floor slabs
Story-height wall panels may

be suspended from the floor
above.
Or be supported on the floor
Wall units incapable of below.
spanning between
column or from floor to
floor require secondary
framing of mullions and
shelf angles.
Spandrel wall units are

If diagonals are used to supported at one floor only. For
brace the structural stability, they may be supported
frame, they will affect the below the floor.
design of the wall units.
Or above the floor
STEEL FRAME WALLS
Column behind the wall Column in the wall plane Column in front of the wall
ANCHORING DEVICES
Structural tees or
brackets bolted or
welded to column flange
• Angle clip shimmed and

bolted or welded to flange of
spandrel beam
Stud bolt welded A wedge-shaped slot receives a

to angle wedge-shaped nut which provides
Welded plate for both vertical adjustment and a
positive connection.
Concrete slab may be cut
to expose the flange of the
spandrel beam or have a
steel angle cast into edge.
A horizontal support can
be suspended from the
spandrel beam.
OPEN WEB JOIST ROOF DECK
Metal roof deck
Joists may frame into a masonry
wall with a parapet above
Continuous bearing
Or
angle for roof deck
Bear on the masonry wall bolted to masonry.
For a flush roof edge
Or an overhang. Bridging should be
securely anchored
Top chord to end wall.
extension for roof
overhang
5’ – 6” max.
Masonry wall
support
Bridging is required
every 10’ to 20’
Depending on joist
span and chord size.
Horizontal bridging for K series joists Joist spacing =
Diagonal bridging for LF and DLH series span of roof
joists decking
Steel beam support
OPEN WEB JOIST ROOF DECK
Top and bottom chords parallel; roof The roof system utilizing open
slope may be achieved by sloping web steel
the joist or by tapering the insulating Joists is similar in layout and
layer of the roof deck. construction to the steel joist
floor system.
Top chord pitched one way. To resist potential wind uplift

forces, every joist must be
securely anchored to its
Top chord pitched two way. supporting structure.
Longspan LH and DLH joists are

available with single or double pitch top
chords.
Standard slop is 1/8” per foot.
OPEN WEB JOIST ROOF SLAB
Precast concrete or
With parapet walls, metal coping
anchor every roof
joist w/ 3/8” Roofing membrane
diameter steel bar over rigid insulation
8” long (min.); Deck bearing angle
For Longspan Metal roof deck bolted to wall
joist,
Anchor w/ ¾”
diameter
Steel bar 12” long
(min.)
4” to 6” min.
Bearing Bottom chord may be Horizontal bridging is
(6” to 12” min. extended to support welded or bolted to clip
for Longspan ceiling. angles anchored to end
joists) wall.
PARAPET: BEARING WALL END WALL

OPEN WEB JOIST ROOF SLAB Metal gravel stop and
Bearing angle for deck
fascia edge
Without a parapet,
anchor every roof
joist w/ 2 – ½”
diameter anchor
bolts; for longspan
joists use 2 – ¾”
diameter anchor Diagonal bracing for
bolts. longspan joists
Horizontal bridging fastened
to angle bolted to end wall
FLUSH EDGE: BEARING WALL END WALL

Supporting steel angles
At steel supports use ½”
dia. bolts or 2 – 1/8” fillet
welds 1” long
(for longspan joists, use
2 – ¾” dia. bolts or 2 –
¼” fillet welds 2” long)
Cut stone or precast

2 ½” min. bearing
concrete panel
(4” min. for longspan joists)
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAME PARAPET WALL

Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

COMPOSITE JOIST ROOF SLAB
Roofs are frames with
Steel Columns & Connecting angle
Connections
structural steel similar to
Steel angle cast into
Non bearing edge of conc. topping the way steel floors are
Steel Beams & wall panel or frames.
Connection facing
Open-Web Steel Joists Thermal insulation may be

provided with lightweight
Metal Decking
Secondary beam insulating concrete fill or
Steel Trusses and Rigid 4.7 Primary beam rigid insulating boards.
Frames
Steel framing to support
Structural steel can also be
Systems Shelf angle used to frame sloping
Roofing membrane roofs.
Joining of Steel over rigid insulation
Members Perimeter
Exposed fascia
insulation
beam of 2
weathering
steel angles
Column Conc. slab over

steel decking
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction 4.7 STEEL TRUSSES AND RIGID FRAMES
4.7.1 ROOF TRUSSES
A truss is a structural framework composed of a series of straight members
Steel Columns &
Connections so arranged and fastened together that external loads applied to it will
cause only direct stress in the members. The upper and lower members of
Steel Beams & a truss are called the top chord and bottom chord respectively. The
Connection
members of the truss which are framed between and join the top and
Open-Web Steel Joists bottom members are called web members.
Metal Decking
When the external loads act downward and the truss is supported at the
Steel Trusses and Rigid 4.7 ends, the top chord is always in compression and the lower chord always in
Frames tension, similar to the upper and lower flanges of a beam. The web-
Structural Steel Framing members are subjected to stresses of either tension or compression. Web-
Systems members subjected to tensile stresses are called tension web-members;
those which are subjected to compression are called compression web-
Joining of Steel
Members members. In certain positions, a web-member may be subjected to tension
through the action of a load applied at one point, and when applied at
another point that load may produce compression in the member so that at
one time it will be subjected to tension and at another time to compression.
Such a member, design to resist either tension or compression, is called a
counterbrace. A member of a truss system which acts only for a particular
partial loading, and which has a zero stress when the truss is completely
loaded is called a counter.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes When a truss is supported at its ends by columns, the truss together with
Structural Steel Framing its columns, considered as a unit, is called a bent.
Steel Columns & The intersection between two or more members of the truss is called a
Connections
joint or panel joint and the distance between two adjacent joints along
Steel Beams & either the top or bottom chords is known as the panel or panel length. The
Connection quadrangular space, crossed by an inclined web-member, is also referred
Open-Web Steel Joists to as a panel. The axes of all members at each joint should always meet in
a common point.
Metal Decking
Steel Trusses and Rigid 4.7 The span of a roof truss is the distance between the centers of the
Frames supports and its rise is the distance between the apex of the truss and the
line joining the points of support. The pitch of a roof truss is the ratio of the
Systems rise to the span for a truss symmetrical about its center line. The slope of
an inclined member is the tangent of the angle of inclination with the
Joining of Steel horizontal, usually specified in inches rise per 12” run.
Members
The portion of the roof between two adjacent trusses is called a bay.
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
ROOF CONSIDERATIONS

Roof structure must be designed
Steel Columns & to carry:
Connections
Steel Beams & Dead loads: Roof structures, deck,

Connection
insulation roofing, and any
Open-Web Steel Joists equipment, located on top of or
Metal Decking suspended from roof.
Frames Live loads: Accumulated rain,
snow and ice, and traffic, if any
Systems • Wind loads: Pressure or suction
from wind.
Joining of Steel
Members
The type of roofing required for the
roof slope:
Shingles, tiles, sheet, or

membrane.
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
ROOF CONSIDERATIONS
12

Sloping roofs may be categorized into:
7
Steel Columns & High slope medium to high slope – 4:12 to 12:12
(rise)
Connections Medium slope
Low slope 4 low slopes – up to 9:12
Steel Beams & 3
Connection Sloping roofs may have a structure of:
• rafters and sheathing
Open-Web Steel Joists 12 (run)
• Beams, purlins, and decking
Metal Decking • trusses
Steel Trusses and Rigid 4.7
Frames Medium and high slope roofs may be
severed with shingles, tiles or sheet
Structural Steel Framing materials.
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
SLOPING ROOFS
Structural Steel
Construction
4.0
ROOF FRAMING
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

4.7.2 TYPES OF TRUSSES
Steel Columns &

A. RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE
Connections MEMBERS COMPOSING THE TRUSS.
Steel Beams &
Connection
1. Complete Frame. A complete structural frame, or truss, is one in
which is made up of the minimum number of members required to
Open-Web Steel Joists provide a complete system of triangles fixing the relative positions of a
Metal Decking
given number of panel joints. If the number of panel points in the given
structure and n = the number of necessary members.
Steel Trusses and Rigid 4.7 n = 2p – 3
Frames
2. Incomplete Frame. One in which the number of members is less than
Structural Steel Framing that required by the equation given above.
Systems
Joining of Steel
3. Redundant Frame. A redundant frame is one which contains more
Members members than that required by the equation given above.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
B. RELATIVE TO FORM
1. Triangular
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection 2. Quadrangular
Metal Decking

Frames
3. Crescent
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
4. Scissors
5. Arched
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction C. RELATIVE TO METHOD OF SUPPORT
1. Simple Truss. A truss supported at each end-point.
Steel Columns & 2. Overhanging end span. A truss supported at one end-joint and other joint not
Connections an end-joint.
Steel Beams &
Connection 3. Cantilever span. A truss where the entire support is at one end only.

Panel Length
Metal Decking
Peak
Frames Truss Plate Continuous Lateral Brace
Structural Steel Framing Top Chord

Systems Slope
Heel Pitch
Joining of Steel Web
Members
Bottom Chord Splice

Wedge Block
Bearing Point Panel Point
Span (Out to Out of Bearings) Cantilever
Overhang Bottom Chord Length

Structural Steel
4.0
Construction D. RELATIVE TO ARRANGEMENT OF THE WEB-BRACING SYSTEM
Structural Steel Shapes 1. Fink 5. Hammer-beam
2. Howe 6. Sawtooth
Structural Steel Framing 3. Pratt 7. Warren
4. Scissors 8. Pettit
Steel Columns &
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection

FINK SAWTOOTH
Metal Decking

Frames
HOWE
Systems
Joining of Steel WARREN

Members
PRATT
SCISSORS
PETTIT
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction 4.6.3 RIGID FRAMES
Rigid frames consist of two columns and a beam or girder that are rigidly
Structural Steel Framing connected at their joints. Applied loads produce axial, bending and shear forces
Steel Columns &
in all members of the frame since the rigid joints restrain the ends of the
Connections members from rotating freely. In addition, vertical loads cause a rigid frame to
develop horizontal thrusts at its base. A rigid frame is statically indeterminate and
Steel Beams &
Connection
rigid only in its plane.
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

4.8 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS
Structural Steel Framing 4.8.1 ARRANGEMENT OF VERTICAL COMPONENTS
Steel Columns &
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

4.8
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

4.8
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction 4.8.2 STRENGTHENING THE FRAMING SYSTEM
The framing system can be stiffened against horizontal forces in the following
Structural Steel Framing three (3) methods:
Steel Columns &
Connections 1. The structure is composed of rigid frames which may comprise some hinged
joints but there must be sufficient rigid joints to ensure that none of the nodes
Steel Beams &
Connection of the frame is free to move sideways. The members may be straight or
curved and a variety of shapes may be chosen for such framed structure.
Metal Decking

Frames

4.8
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
2. A bracing system which consists of a triangulated framework of rolled
Structural Steel Shapes sections will hold the joints together and further strengthen the
framework against lateral loads. The center lines of members
converging at a joint should intersect at one point. The joints
Steel Columns & themselves are conventionally assumed to be hinged, so that the
Connections members are either ties or struts, loaded purely in tension or
Steel Beams & compression, respectively. However, the overall bracing effect of a
Connection lattice system can be enhances by constructing it with tiff members and
rigid joints.
Metal Decking

Frames

4.8
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
3. Finally, shear walls in the form of more or less solid diaphragms,
usually of reinforced concrete, transmit the wind and earthquake
Structural Steel Framing forces by shear and bending.
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

4.8
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

4.8.3 The Ultimate Structures for Skyscrapers –
Steel Columns &

Connections
THE TUBULAR FRAME
Steel Beams &
Connection
The high-rise building conceived as a rigid tube ---
Metal Decking
If a high-rise building is of suitably compact shape on plan (circular,
Frames
square, not too narrow a rectangle), the external columns can be
structurally merged with the external lattice bracing or with
4.8 spandrel girders so as to form a vast rigid tube. This stiffening
Systems
system is particularly effective and economical. This is due not only
Joining of Steel to the optimum distribution of the bracing, but also more
Members particularly to the co-operation of all the columns and bracing or
spandrel girders in the external walls.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction The John Hancock Center, Chicago (architects:
Graham and Skidmore, Owings and Merrill)
employs the tube in its framing system. In this 335
Structural Steel Framing m high 100-story building, all the horizontal forces
Steel Columns &
are transmitted through external bracing, whereby
Connections a substantial saving has been achieved in
comparison with a bracing system located in the
Steel Beams &
Connection
interior. The external lattice members form a
distinctive architectural feature.
Metal Decking

Frames

4.8
Systems
Joining of Steel
Members
Smaller column forces develop in
wider buildings since moment arm
THE TUBULAR FRAME Over turning moments
separating the columns is greater.
Tall building are particularly

susceptible to the effects of
lateral loads. The wider a tall
building is, the greater is its
resistance to bending Resisting moments
As the height of a building

increases, it becomes
necessary to supplement a rigid
frame with additional bracing
mechanisms, such as a rigid
core or diagonal bracing.
Rigid frame Braced frame Tube structure Diagonal bracing

core and core superimposed
over frame or tube
structure
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.9 JOINING OF STEEL MEMBERS

Steel shapes can be joined in the building frame using any of the
Steel Columns & following fastening methods:
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection 4.9.1 RIVETING
A rivet is a short pin, of malleable metal such as iron, steel, or copper,
Metal Decking with a head at one end; used to unite two metal plates by passing it
Steel Trusses and Rigid through a hole in both plates and then hammering down the point to
Frames for a second head.
Systems In structural riveting, a hot steel rivet with a formed head is inserted in
holes through two members to be joined; its head is then held with a
Joining of Steel 4.9 hand hammer with a cup shaped depression, while a pneumatic
Members
hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly against the other end to form a
second head. The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing members tightly
together.
Rivet set, rivet snap, settoing punch, snap – a tool for shaping the head of a rivet.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes The types of rivet heads are:
Structural Steel Framing • Countersunk, raised

Steel Columns &
• Countersunk, flat
Connections • Button, coned neck
• Button, straight neck
Steel Beams &
Connection
• Pan, coned neck
• Pan, straight neck
Metal Decking
4.9.2 BOLTING
Frames The bolts commonly used in steel frame construction falls into two general
categories:
Systems
Carbon-steel bolts – or common bolts; are similar to the ordinary
Joining of Steel 4.9
Members
machine bolts. Carbon steel is steel having no specified minimum
content of alloying elements; minimum copper content not exceeding
0.40%.
High-strength bolts – are bolts made of either high-strength carbon steel

or quenched and tempered alloy steel; tempered meaning, heat
treated during manufacture to develop the necessary strength. It is
usually tightened using pneumatic or electric impact wrench.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes A major problem in high strength bolting or friction type connections is how
to verify the necessary tension has been achieved in all the bolts in a
connection.
Steel Columns & There are several ways to achieve proper tightening:
Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection Turn-of-nut method
Load indicator washer
Tension control bolts
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems

Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes 4.9.3 WELDING

Welding has become fully accepted as a means of joining steel structural
Steel Columns & members in buildings because it has the inherent advantage of fusing
Connections the metals to be joined, thereby simplifying connections and
Steel Beams & fabricating operations.
Connection

A. DEFINITION OF FUSION WELDING (ELECTRIC ARC WELDING)
Metal Decking
The fusion welding process employs an electric arc, wherein energy in the
Frames form of heat is supplied by establishing an arc between the base or
parent metal (the parts to be joined) and a metal electrode. As the arc
Structural Steel Framing is formed, tremendous heat is concentrated at the point of welding.
Systems
Instantly, the materials are at melting-point temperature.
Members The parent metal melts in a small pool and additional metal supplied by
the electrode is transferred through the arc an deposited in the pool.
As the electrode continues along the joint, the molten metal left behind
solidifies to form the weld.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
4.8.2 COATED ELECTRODES
Most welding is done with coated electrodes. The function of the coating
is to form a gaseous shield, which protects the arc and molten metal
Steel Columns & from contact with the air. Oxides and nitrides resulting from contact
Connections with the air tend to produce brittle welds. The coating also forms a
Steel Beams &
slag-fuse shield, which floats above the molten metal, protecting it
Connection from the atmosphere. The slag is easily removed after the weld has
cooled.
Metal Decking The size and strength of weld is determined by the length of its leg.
Frames
For an E60 electrode on A36 steel, the allowable stress may be
computed on the basis of 800 pounds per linear inch per 1/16 inch
Structural Steel Framing of leg size.
Systems
Joining of Steel 4.9 For A36 steel or higher-strength steels up to Fy = 60 ksi, an E70
Members electrode should be used and the the allowable stress may be
computed on the basis of 930 pounds per linear inch per 1/16 inch
of leg size.
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems

Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes C. TYPES OF WELD

Steel Columns & FILLET WELD – is of approximately triangular section joining two
Connections
surfaces approximately at right angles to each other. The fillet weld
Steel Beams & is the most common type of weld used in structural work.
Connection
Open-Web Steel Joists GROOVE WELD – is made by depositing filler material in a groove
between two members to be joined. The standard types of grooves
Metal Decking are square, V, bevel-U, and J. With the exception of the square
Steel Trusses and Rigid groove, all grooves may be either single or double.
Frames
PLUG or SLOT WELD – is made of a circular hole (plug) or an
Systems elongated hole (slot) in one member of a lap joint, joining that
member to the portion of the surface of the other member that is
Joining of Steel 4.9 exposed through the hole.
Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems

Members
Structural Steel
4.0 D. WELD POSITIONS
Construction
Structural Steel Shapes There are four positions in welding. In order of economy, they are the flat, horizontal,
vertical, and overhead positions. Overhead welds, which is the most difficult, should be
Structural Steel Framing avoided whenever possible.
Steel Columns &
Connections E. WELD JOINTS
Steel Beams & The three most common joints used in structural work are the butt, T, and lap joints.
Connection
Other types are the edge and corner joints. Fillet welds are applicable to T, lap, and
Open-Web Steel Joists corner joints; groove welds are applicable to all joints with the exception of lap joints.
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems

Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction

STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems

Members
Structural Steel
4.0
Construction
WELDING SYMBOLS – Examples of use
Steel Columns &

Connections
Steel Beams &

Connection
Metal Decking

Frames

Systems

Members
END

04 Steel Construction

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This teaching material is a compilation of information from journals, books, magazines,

Steel Trusses and Rigid 5. Angle Bars

Structural Steel Framing

7. I-Beams – The use of a standard I-beam as a column is uneconomical

Structural Steel Shapes 4.1 7. Tee Beams

Open-Web Steel Joists

Open-Web Steel Joists DOUBLE-EXTRA-STRONG PIPE – a

CORRUGATED METAL – sheet metal

Structural Steel Framing

Steel Beams & EQUAL LEG ANGLE – angle iron

Structural Steel Framing

Structural Steel Framing EXPANDED METAL – mesh or latticed sheet

Steel Trusses and Rigid WIRE GAUGE– determines the diameter of

HARDWARE CLOTH – a galvanized steel wire

WIRE ROPE – a heavy rope made of strands

Structural Steel Shapes 4.1

SHEAR PLATE – a plate

STIFFENER – vertical BEARING STIFFENER – a

Structural Steel Shapes

Structural Steel Framing

Steel Columns &

Steel Beams & Each part of closely-spaced external columns supports

Structural Steel Framing

TWO-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

Structural Steel Shapes

Steel Columns &

Steel Trusses and Rigid TRIPLE BEAM SYSTEM

Structural Steel Framing

Steel Beams &

Open-Web Steel Joists

Steel Trusses and Rigid

Structural Steel Framing

Open-Web Steel Joists

Steel Trusses and Rigid

Structural Steel Framing

Structural Steel Shapes 4.3 STEEL COLUMNS AND CONNECTIONS

Steel Columns &

Steel Beams &

Structural Steel Shapes c. Latticed Columns made up of channels or

Steel Beams &

Open-Web Steel Joists

Steel Beams & g. Columns for bents are sometimes made up

Structural Steel Framing h. Battened columns are those in which two

Structural Steel Shapes 4.3.2 LALLY COLUMNS

These are columns in which a concrete core is further reinforced with a

Structural Steel Framing

Steel Columns &

Steel Beams &

Open-Web Steel Joists

Steel Trusses and Rigid

Structural Steel Framing

Structural Steel Shapes 4.4 STEEL BEAMS AND CONNECTIONS

Steel Columns & 4.4.1 STEEL BEAMS

Steel Beams &

Structural Steel Framing

Steel Columns &

Structural Steel Framing

Steel Columns &

Steel Beams &

Open-Web Steel Joists

Steel Trusses and Rigid

Steel Beams & Shear carried by plates welded