CFI Lesson 2 Aerodynamics

COPYRIGHT NOTICE
This presentation was authored by Roger M. Stenbock CFII J.D. and

is the exclusive property of Stenbock Communications Inc. Use of this
presentation in any form, whether used independently, or incorporated
into other works, without written permission or an explicit license from
Stenbock Communications Inc. is prohibited. This copyright notice
must be included as the first slide of this presentation for any use,
whether used wholly, in part, or modified in any form.
© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

The Axes of an Aircraft Aerodynamic Efficiency
Airfoils and Shapes Load Factor
Aerodynamic Forces Stalls and Spins
Balancing Forces Wing Shapes
Aircraft Stability High-Lift Devices
Ground Effect

Center of
Gravity
Three Axes of Movement

The three axes of an aircraft intersect at the
A – center of gravity.
B – center of pressure.
C – midpoint of the mean chord.
The three axes of rotation of an aircraft

intersect at the center of gravity

An airfoil is a specially
shaped surface, designed to
produce aerodynamic lift as
Lift air flows over it.
For most airfoils to produce lift,

the wind must strike it at an
Lift angle, called the angle of
attack.
Angle of Attack

Venturi
Pressure
Decreases
Venturi

Camber

Layer of undisturbed air
Constriction
Air molecules
Low must speed up
Pressure
Higher Pressure
thus Lift

1 Cross Section
2 Surface Area
3 Angle of Attack
4 Velocity
5 Air Density

Mean-Camber - A line
drawn from the leading
Leading edge to the trailing edge of
Edge an airfoil,
Centerequidistant
of at all
pointsPressure Upper
Camber
Downwash
Trailing
Angle
Angle Edge
of
Attack
Relative Wind
Lower
Camber Chord
Line

The angle of attack controls the pressures
above and below the wing. As the angle of
attack is increased, the pressure
differential becomes greater until the
stalling angle of attack is reached.
Chord Line
Relative Wind

Asymmetrical Airfoil Symmetrical Airfoil
 The upper and lower cambers  Atzero angle of attack, will not
are different. produce a pressure differential.
 Airflowing at zero angle of  The center of pressure remains

attack still produces lift. relatively constant.
 The center of pressure moves  Changes in the center of

forward as the angle of pressure affect the
attack increases. aerodynamic balance .

The angle between the chord line of an airfoil
and the relative wind is known as the angle of
A – lift.
B – attack.
C – incidence.
The angle of attack is the acute angle between the

chord line of the wing and the direction of the
relative wind.

1 Lift
2 Weight
3 Thrust
4 Drag

Lift
Thrust
Drag
Weight

The two lift variables are the
airspeed and the angle of
attack. To maintain level flight at
a lower airspeed, the pilot must
increase the angle of attack. To
prevent the aircraft from
Lift
climbing when the speed is
increased, the angle of attack
must be reduced.

Parasite drag is caused by the
Two basic
friction of types
the air of drag: over the
flowing
induced and parasite.
aircraft, and it is not related to
the production
Induced drag isofcaused
lift. by the
Drag production of lift.
Parasite drag increases
Induced dragtovaries
proportional inversely
the square as
of the
the square of the airspeed. If the
airspeed.
airspeed
- Parasiteisis:reduced to one-half
its
-dragoriginal
Form value, the induced
drag.
increases 4 times.
- Profile drag
- Interference drag

The point on an airfoil through which lift acts
is the
A – center of gravity.
B – center of pressure.
C – midpoint of the chord.
All of the upward lift forces on a wing can be

considered to be concentrated at the center of
pressure of the airfoil.

The resistance, or skin friction, due to
viscosity of the air as it passes along the
surface of the wing is called
A – form drag.
B – profile drag.
C – parasite drag.
Profile drag is the resistance, or skin friction,

due to viscosity (stickiness) of the air as it
passes along the surface of the wing.

Hey Bob, what are
the forces in un-
accelerated flight Well Bill, Lift equals
now? Weight and Thrust
equals Drag

Bob, What
happens if I add
power?
More power means more

thrust, so we go faster or
climb. After a while the
acceleration stops and we
are all balanced again.

Mm, I wonder
what happens if
I decrease
power?
I’ll momentarily decelerate.

Then descend. But, the
airspeed increases. The nose
rises, and the drag is now the
same as the engine thrust,
plus the thrust vector from
the descent angle, and all
acceleration stops. So I’m
balanced again - But I will go
down!

During a steady climb, the angle of climb
depends on
A – excess thrust.
B – power available.
C – thrust required.
During a steady climb, the angle of climb is a

function of excess thrust.

As the angle of bank is increased, the vertical
component of lift.
A – increases and the sink rate increases.

B – decreases and the sink rate increases.
C – increases and the sink rate decreases.
In a turn, the total lift is separated into two components:

the horizontal component pulls the aircraft around the
turn, and the vertical component opposes the weight. If
the turn is made with no increase in the angle of attack,
the total lift will remain constant, and as the angle of a
bank is increased, the vertical component of lift will
decrease, and the sink rate will increase.

Maneuverability - maneuvered easily
and to withstand the stresses imposed
by maneuvers.
Controllability - responds to the pilot's

control, especially with regard to flight
path and attitude.
Stability - corrects for conditions that

may disturb its equilibrium, and to
return or continue on the original flight
path.

Static Positive
Stability
There is a tendency
to return to
equilibrium
Static Negative
Stability
Tendency to continue
in displacement
direction
Static Neutral
Stability
Equilibrium
encountered at any
point of
displacement

Positive Dynamic Positive Static
Displacement
Neutral Dynamic Positive Static

Displacement
Negative Dynamic Positive Static

Displacement

Longitudinal Stable
Aircraft returns to level flight.
Displacement
Time

Phugoid Oscillation
Airspeed and altitude vary, angle of
attack remains constant
Altitude
Time

Positive Lateral Stability keeps
aircraft stable in roll axis
Dihedral Angle

Positive Directional Stability keeps
aircraft stable about the yaw axis
Achieved through fuselage and rudder

area

Changes in the center of pressure of a wing
affect the aircraft's
A – lift/drag ratio.
B – lifting capacity.
C – aerodynamic balance and controllability.
The center of pressure of an asymmetrical airfoil moves

forward as the angle of attack is decreased. This
backward and forward movement of the point at which
lift acts affects the aerodynamic balance and the
controllability of the aircraft.

If an aircraft has negative dynamic and
positive static stability, this will result in
A – undamped oscillations.
B – divergent oscillations.
C – convergent oscillations.
An aircraft having positive static stability will tend to

return to its condition of steady flight after it has been
disturbed. But, if it has negative dynamic stability, the
static corrections will increase and result in divergent
oscillations.

Total
Drag
L/Dmax
Parasite
Drag
A
Stall
Drag / Lift (lbs)
Induced
B Drag
Velocity Angle of
Attack

Maximum gliding distance of an aircraft is
obtained when
A – parasite drag is the least.
B – induced drag and parasite drag are equal.
C – induced drag equals the coefficient of lift.
L/Dmax occurs at the airspeed where parasite drag and

induced drag are equal. If the aircraft is operated in steady
flight at L/Dmax, the total drag is at a minimum. Maximum
gliding distance of the aircraft will be obtained at this
airspeed.

0o
20o
1.0
Airplane weight 2,675 lb

Example: A load factor
o of
40 lb the
2.5 x 2,675 = 6,687.5
60o 80o
wings must support.

Stalling speed
increases in
proportion to the Example:
square root of the
load factor Normal stall speed 50
knots
60o
Bank Load factor at 600 bank =
2.0
Square root of 2.0=1.4
50x1.4=70 knots

Normal Stall = 62 knots
60x2 = 124 knots

The
This
When design
flyingmaneuvering
airspeed is not
into marked
severe speed
on the
turbulence,
(Va) is the
airspeed
the pilot maximum
indicator.
should airspeed
It is
reduce about at
1.7
the airspeed
which
times an aircraft
to the normal stallmay
maneuvering be safely
speed.
speed.
stalled.

Design maneuvering airspeed,
Maximum
Va. Highest stalling airspeedstructural
Never-exceed airspeed,
cruising
without exceeding airspeed,
a 3.8-G loadVne.Vno.
Marked on an
Marked on theairspeed
factor. airspeed indicator with
indicator as the upper
limit of the greenaarcred radial line.
Normal wings-level
stall speed of this
airplane.

If an airplane's gross weight is 3,250 pounds,
what is the load acting on this airplane during
a level 60 degree banked turn?
A – 3,250 pounds.
B – 5,200 pounds.
C – 6,500 pounds.
A coordinated, level 60 degree banked turn subjects an

airplane to a load factor of 2 Gs. This means that if the
airplane has a gross weight of 3,250 pounds, the wings
will have to support 3,250 x 2 or 6,500 pounds in a
coordinated 60 degree banked turn.

If severe turbulence is encountered, the
aircraft's airspeed should be reduced to
A – maneuvering speed.
B – normal structural cruising speed.
C – the minimum steady flight speed in the
landing configuration.
If severe turbulence is encountered in flight, the

aircraft's airspeed should be reduced to the design
maneuvering speed. This speed is not marked on the
airspeed indicator, but it is found in the Pilot's Operating
Handbook.

Flight
Direction
Normal Angle
of Attack
Flight
Direction
High Angle of
Attack
Flight
Direction
Past Critical
Angle of Attack
totally stalled

P1-28
- Aircraft must be stalled.
- One Wing stalled more than other.
- Aircraft will roll and yaw towards

the more stalled wing.
- Then begin rotation as it enters

the spin.
P1-29
A fully developed spin resembles a
descending spiral.
1. First, reduce the throttle to idle.
2. Apply rudder opposite to the direction of

the spin.
3. When the rotation stops, reduce the

angle of attack by moving the control
column forward.
4. Gently pull out of the resultant dive.

The critical angle of attack at which a given
aircraft stalls is dependent on the
A – gross weight.
B – design of the wing.
C – attitude and airspeed.
Each aircraft has a particular angle of attack where the

airflow separates from the upper surface of the wing
and the stall occurs. This critical angle of attack varies
from 16 to 20 degrees depending on the aircraft's
design. But each aircraft has only one specific angle of
attack where the stall occurs.
Which action will result in a stall?
A – Flying at too low an airspeed.

B – Raising the aircraft's nose too high.
C – Exceeding the critical angle of attack.
A given aircraft will always stall at the same angle of attack

regardless of airspeed, weight, load factor, or density altitude.
Each aircraft has a particular angle of attack where the airflow
separates from the upper surface of the wing and the stall
occurs. The critical angle of attack varies from 16 to 20
degrees, depending on the aircraft design, but each aircraft
has only one critical angle of attack where the stall occurs.

Moderate Taper Sweptback High Taper
Rectangular Pointed Tip Elliptical

Aspect Ratio = Span/chord
High Aspect Ratio Wings are

most efficient

Aircraft 1 2 3 4
Wing Span 40’ 35’ 48’ 30’
Average Wing
Chord 6’ 5’ 6’ 6’
Aspect 40/6 35/5 48/6 30/6

Ratio 6.7 7 8 5

On which wing planform does the stall begin at the
wingtip and progress inward toward the wing root?
A – Sweepback wing.
B – Rectangular wing.
C – Moderate taper wing.
On a sweptback wing, the stall begins at the tips and

progresses inward to the wing root.

Plain
Split
Fowler
Slotted

(Refer to the figure ) Which is a Fowler flap?
A – 2.
B – 3.
C – 4.

(Refer to the figure ) Which is a Fowler flap?
A – 2.
B – 3.
C – 4.
Flap 4 is a Fowler flap. A Fowler flap moves out of the

trailing edge of the wing on tracks and increases both
the wing area and the amount of camber.

Less than one
wingspan length

An airplane is usually affected by ground
effect at what height above the surface?
A – Three to four times the airplane's

wingspan.
B – Twice the airplane's wingspan above the
surface.
C – Less than half the airplane's wingspan
above the surface.
The height above the surface determines the amount of

ground effect. For practical purposes, ground effect
occurs up to a height equal to ½ of the airplane's
wingspan.
Actuator
Leading Edge Slats
Fixed Slot
Slotted Leading Edge

Vortex Generators

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COPYRIGHT NOTICE

This presentation was authored by Roger M. Stenbock CFII J.D. and

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

Airfoils and Shapes Load Factor

Aerodynamic Forces Stalls and Spins

Balancing Forces Wing Shapes

Aircraft Stability High-Lift Devices

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

Three Axes of Movement

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

The three axes of rotation of an aircraft

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

For most airfoils to produce lift,

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

 Airflowing at zero angle of  The center of pressure remains

 The center of pressure moves  Changes in the center of

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

The angle of attack is the acute angle between the

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

C – midpoint of the chord.

All of the upward lift forces on a wing can be

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

Profile drag is the resistance, or skin friction,

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

More power means more

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

I’ll momentarily decelerate.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

During a steady climb, the angle of climb is a

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

A – increases and the sink rate increases.

In a turn, the total lift is separated into two components:

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

Controllability - responds to the pilot's

Stability - corrects for conditions that

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

Neutral Dynamic Positive Static

Negative Dynamic Positive Static

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

Achieved through fuselage and rudder

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

The center of pressure of an asymmetrical airfoil moves

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

An aircraft having positive static stability will tend to

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

© 2001-2006 Stenbock Communications Inc.

A – parasite drag is the least.

B – induced drag and parasite drag are equal.

C – induced drag equals the coefficient of lift.