Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge

Lab 1 is made up of the following stages:

1.1 Wheatstone Bridge.

1.2 Voltage Follower or Buffer.
1.3 Differential Amp.
1.4 Inverting Amp.

Voltage
Follower or
Buffer Differential
Wheatstone Inverting
Bridge Amp Amp
Voltage
Follower or
Buffer Block Diagram of Laboratory 1
 Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge
VEE
-10V

4
Schematic Diagram of Laboratory 1
2
U1 R3
6 R12
741
3 1.0kOhm
2.2kOhm
7 1 5
VEE
-10V C1 VEE
VCC
VCC -10V
10V
10V 4 0.1uF
VEE R4 4
2 R7
-10V 1.0kOhm U3
R11 R6 6 2
741 1.0kOhm U4
R2 330ohm 4 3 6
1.0kOhm 741
2.2kOhm 3
7 1 5
2 R5 C2 R8
U2 1.0kOhm 7 1 5
6 R9
741
V2 3 1.0kOhm VCC 0.1uF 10kOhm
10V VCC
V1 7 1 5
10V
Key = A
R10
500 Ohm VCC
R1 56%
1.0kOhm 10V

Differential
Voltage Amp
Inverting
Follower Amp
Wheatstone or Buffer
Bridge
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

1.8kOhm 4.8kOhm 1.8kOhm 4.8kOhm

R1 R3 R1 R3

V=12 V1 V2 V=12 V1 V=12 V2

1.2kOhm 3.2kOhm 1.2kOhm 3.2kOhm

R2 R4 R2 R4

Voltage Dividers
Wheatstone Bridge
• The Wheatstone bridge consists of two
voltage dividers connected in parallel.
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

• To find the voltage drop

across R1 and R2, we
1.8kOhm e1
apply the voltage
R1 divider equation:

V=12 V1
V x R1
e1 
R1  R2
1.2kOhm e2
R2 V x R2
e2 
R1  R2

Replace values in equations and calculate: e1 and e2

 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

Solution:
1.8kOhm e1
R1
12V x 1.8K
e1   7.2V
V=12 V1 1.8K  1.2K

1.2kOhm e2 12V x 1.2K

e2   4.8V
R2 1.8K  1.2K
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

4.8kOhm
R3 e3
Now, find e3 and e4.
V=12 V2

3.2kOhm e4
R4
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

Solution:

4.8kOhm V x R3
e3 
R3 e3 R3  R4
12V x 4.8K
e3   7.2V
V=12 V2 4.8K  3.2K

V x R4
3.2kOhm e4 
e4 R3  R4
R4
12V x 3.2K
e4   4.8V
4.8K  3.2K
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

1.8kOhm 4.8kOhm
e1=7.2V R1 R3
e3=7.2V
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2=4.8V 1.2kOhm 3.2kOhm
R2 R4 e4=4.8V

• The circuit summarizes all the calculations.

• The galvanometer allows us to measure the current
between nodes V1 and V2.
Is there current flowing through the galvanometer? Why?
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

1.8kOhm 4.8kOhm
e1=7.2V R1 R3
e3=7.2V
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2=4.8V 1.2kOhm 3.2kOhm
R2 R4 e4=4.8V

Solution:
There is no current flowing through the galvanometer
because the voltages are the same:
e1 = e3 and e2 = e4
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

1.8kOhm 4.8kOhm
e1=7.2V R1 R3
e3=7.2V
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2=4.8V 1.2kOhm 3.2kOhm
R2 R4 e4=4.8V

When no current flows through the galvanometer we say

that the Wheatstone bridge is nulled.

Calculate R1/R2 and R3/R4 ratios

 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

1.8kOhm 4.8kOhm
e1=7.2V R1 R3
e3=7.2V
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2=4.8V 1.2kOhm 3.2kOhm
R2 R4 e4=4.8V

R1 1.8K R3 4.8K
Solution:   1.5   1.5
R2 1.2K R4 3.2K

R1 R3

This relationship occurs when the
Then:
R2 R4 Wheatstone bridge is nulled.
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

e1 R1 R3
e3
V1 V2
V G

e2 1kOhm
R4 e4
R2

Determine R4 to null the Wheatstone bridge.

 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

e1 R1 R3
e3
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2 1kOhm 100 Ohm
R2 R4 e4

Solution. Given R1  R3 then

R2 R4
R2 x R3 1K x 200
R4    100
R1 2K
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

e1 R1 R3
e3
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2 1kOhm 100 Ohm
R2 R4 e4

Determine V21 when: 1. R4 = 100 Ω.

2. R4 = 120 Ω.
3. R4 = 80 Ω.
Remember that: V21 = V2 – V1 = e4 – e2
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

e1 R1 R3
e3
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2 1kOhm 100 Ohm
R2 R4 e4

Solution when R4 = 100 Ω.

V x R2 12V x 1K V x R4 12V x 100

e2    4V e4    4V
R1  R2 2k  1K R3  R4 200  100

Then: V21 = e4 – e2 = 4V – 4V = 0
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

e1 R1 R3
e3
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2 1kOhm 120 Ohm
R2 R4 e4

Solution when R4 = 120 Ω.

V x R2 12V x 1K V x R4 12V x 120

e2    4V e4    4.5V
R1  R2 2k  1K R3  R4 200  120

Then: V21 = e4 – e2 = 4.5V – 4V = 0.5V

 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

e1 R1 R3
e3
V1 V2
G
V=12
e2 1kOhm 80 Ohm
R2 R4 e4

Solution when R4 = 80 Ω.

V x R2 12V x 1K V x R4 12V x 80

e2    4V e4    3.42V
R1  R2 2k  1K R3  R4 200  80

Then: V21 = e4 – e2 = 3.42V – 4V = – 0.58V

 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

In summary:

When R4 = 100 Ω then V21 = 0

When R4 = 120 Ω then V21 = 0.5V
When R4 = 80 Ω then V21 = – 0.58V

Note that when we vary R4, the Wheatstone bridge is

not nulled; therefore, voltage V21 varies.

We then conclude that the Wheatstone bridge converts

resistance variations to corresponding voltage
variations.
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

R1 R3

V1 V2
G
V=12
1kOhm
LDR
R2

LDR

In this circuit, R4 has been replaced by an LDR.

• What does an LDR do?

• What is the purpose of the circuit?
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

R1 R3

V1 V2
G
V=12
1kOhm
LDR
R2

LDR
Solution:

1. The LDR or Light Dependent Resistor, converts light

variations to resistance variations.
2. The circuit converts light variations to voltage variations.
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

R1 R3

V1 V2
G
V=12
1kOhm
LDR
R2
LDR

What changes would you do to the circuit to convert

temperature variations to voltage variations?
 1.1 Wheatstone Bridge

2kOhm 200 Ohm

R1 R3

V1 V2
G
V=12
1kOhm
TH
R2
Thermistor

Solution:
Replace the LDR by a Thermistor.
 1.2 Voltage Follower or Buffer
VEE
-10V

4
Buffer
• In laboratory 1, we
Wheatstone 2 use two buffers U1
U1
Bridge 6
3
741
and U2, at the
7 1 5 outputs V1 and V2
VCC
VCC of the Wheatstone
10V
10V
bridge.
VEE V1
-10V
R11
R2 330ohm
2.2kOhm
4 V2 • The Buffer prevents
2
U2
the input impedance
V2 3
741 6
of the next stage
V1 7 1 5 from loading down
R10
Key = A
500 Ohm VCC
Buffer the Wheatstone
R1
1.0kOhm
56% 10V bridge voltage
outputs.
 1.2 Voltage Follower or Buffer

VEE • The output signal is

-10V exactly the same as the
input voltage.
7 1 5 U1 (i.e., voltage gain = 1)
3
Vi
741 6
Vo
• The input impedance is
2 very high (i.e.,
megaohms) and the
4
output impedance is very
low (i.e., typically < 1
ohm).
10V
VCC
• A Buffer is used to match
circuits with different
impedance values.
 1.3 The Differential op-amp
VEE
-10V

Buffer 4

2
U1 R3
Differential Amp
6
741
3 1.0kOhm
Wheatstone 7 1 5
VEE
Bridge -10V C1
VCC
VCC
10V
10V 4 0.1uF
VEE R4
2
-10V 1.0kOhm U3
R11 R6 6
741
R2 330ohm 4 3
2.2kOhm 1.0kOhm
7 1 5
2 R5 C2
U2
6
741
V2 3 1.0kOhm VCC 0.1uF
10V
V1 7 1 5

Key = A
R10
500 Ohm VCC
R1 56%
1.0kOhm 10V

Buffer The outputs of the two

buffers are applied to the
differential Amp.
 1.3 The Differential Amp

VEE
-10V
The diff amp amplifies
R2
the difference of the
1kOhm two input signals:
4 U1
R1
2
Vo = (V2 – V1)Av
1kOhm Vo
R3 741 6
3
V1 1kOhm
1.2V 7 1 5 The voltage gain Av
V2 R4
2V 1kOhm can be calculated as:
VCC - R2 R4
10V Av  or Av 
R1 R3

Calculate Av and Vo for the circuit above.

 1.3 The Differential Amp

VEE
-10V R2 Solution:
1kOhm
4 U1 - R2 - 1K
R1 Av   1
R1 1K
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
1.2V 7 1 5 Vo = (V2 – V1)Av
V2 R4
2V 1kOhm
Vo = (2V – 1.2V)(1)
VCC
10V Vo = 0.8V
 1.3 The Differential Amp
VEE
-10V R2

3.3kOhm
4 U1
R1
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
0.7V 7 1 5
V2
1.8V R4

3.3kOhm
VCC
10V

Calculate Av and Vo.

 1.3 The Differential Amp

VEE
Solution:
-10V R2

3.3kOhm - R2 - 3.3K
Av    3.3
4 U1 R1 1K
R1
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
0.7V 7 1 5 Vo = (V2 – V1)Av
V2
1.8V R4
Vo = (1.8V – 0.7V)(3.3)
3.3kOhm
VCC
10V Vo = 3.63V
 1.3 The Differential Amp
VEE
-10V R2

3.3kOhm
4 U1
R1
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
0.7V 7 1 5
V2
1.8V R4

3.3kOhm
VCC
10V

Calculate Av and Vo.

 1.3 The Differential Amp

VEE
-10V R2
Solution:

3.3kOhm - R2 - 3.3K
Av    3.3
4 U1 R1 1K
R1
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
0.7V 7 1 5 Vo = (V2 – V1)Av
V2
1.8V R4
Vo = (– 1.8V – 0.7V)(3.3)
3.3kOhm
VCC
10V Vo = – 8.25V
 1.3 The Differential Amp
VEE
-10V R2

3.3kOhm
4 U1
R1
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
0.7V 7 1 5
V2
1.8V R4

3.3kOhm
VCC
10V

Calculate Av and Vo.

 1.3 The Differential Amp
VEE
-10V R2
Solution:
3.3kOhm
4 U1 - R2 - 3.3K
R1 Av    3.3
R1 1K
2 Vo
1kOhm 741
R3 6
3
V1 1kOhm
0.7V 7 1 5
V2
1.8V R4
Vo = (V2 – V1)Av
3.3kOhm
VCC
10V Vo = [– 1.8V – (– 0.7V)](3.3)

Vo = – 3.63V
 1.4 The Inverting Amp
VEE
Buffer -10V Differential Inverting
4
Amp amp
2
U1 R3
6
Wheatstone 3
741
1.0kOhm
R12

2.2kOhm
Bridge 7 1 5
VEE
-10V C1 VEE
VCC
VCC -10V
10V
10V 4 0.1uF
VEE R4 4
2 R7
-10V 1.0kOhm U3
R11 R6 6 2
741 1.0kOhm U4
R2 330ohm 4 3 6
1.0kOhm 741
2.2kOhm 3
7 1 5
2 R5 C2 R8
U2 1.0kOhm 7 1 5
6 R9
741
V2 3 1.0kOhm VCC 0.1uF 10kOhm
10V VCC
V1 7 1 5
10V
Key = A
R10
500 Ohm VCC
R1
1.0kOhm
56% 10V Buffer
The output of the
Differential Amp is applied
to the inverting amp.
 1.4 The Inverting Amp
VEE
-10V
R2

4.7kOhm
4
R1 Amplifies the input
1kOhm
2 signal and
741 6 Vo
produces a 180
3
phase-shift
vi=3 mVpp R3 7 1 5 between the output
1kOhm
and input signals.
VCC
10V

 R2
The voltage gain (Av), is calculated as: Av 
R1

Calculate Av for the circuit above.

 1.4 The Inverting Amp
VEE
-10V
R2

4.7kOhm
4
R1
2
1kOhm 741 Vo
6
3

vi=3 mVpp R3 7 1 5 Solution.

1kOhm
 R2  4.7K
VCC Av     4.7
10V
R1 1K

The circuit amplifies 4.7 times the input signal. The

negative sign indicates that the output signal is 180º
out-of-phase with respect to the input signal.
 1.4 The Inverting Amp

VEE
-10V
R2 The output voltage
4.7kOhm (Vo), is equal to the
4 voltage gain (Av) times
R1
2
the input voltage (vi).
1kOhm 741 Vo
6
3 Vo = ( Av )( vi )
vi=3 mVpp R3 7 1 5
1kOhm

VCC
10V

Calculate Vo.
 1.4 The Inverting Amp
VEE
-10V
R2

4.7kOhm
4
R1
2
1kOhm 741 Vo
6
3

vi=3 mVpp R3 7 1 5
1kOhm

VCC
10V

Solution.
Vo = ( Av ) ( vi ) = (– 4.7)(3mVpp) = –14.1mVpp
 1.4 The Inverting Amp

VEE
-10V
R2 The circuit also
3.3kOhm
amplifies DC voltages
4 and the equations are
R1
2
the same.
1kOhm 741 Vo
6
V1 3  R2
1.2 V Av 
R3 7 1 5 R1
820 Ohm

VCC Vo = ( Av ) ( vi )
10V

Calculate the voltage gain (Av) and the output voltage (Vo).
 1.4 The Inverting Amp
VEE
-10V
R2

3.3kOhm
4
R1
2
1kOhm 741 Vo
6
V1 3
1.2 V
R3 7 1 5
820 Ohm

VCC
10V

Solution.  R2  3.3
Av     3.3
R1 1K
Vo = ( Av ) ( vi ) = (–3.3)(1.2V) = – 3.96 V
 Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge
VEE
-10V

2
U1 R3
6 R12
741
3 1.2kOhm_5%
2.7kOhm_5%
7 1 5
VEE
-10V C1 VEE
VCC
-10V
10V
4 0.1uF
VEE R4 4
2 R7
VCC -10V 1.0kOhm U3
R6 6 2
10V 741 1.0kOhm U4 Vo
4 3 6
1.0kOhm 741
3
7 1 5
2 R5 C2 R8
R11 U2 1.2kOhm_5% 1.0kOhm 7 1 5
R2 330ohm 6
2.2kOhm 741
3 VCC 0.1uF
10V VCC
7 1 5
10V
V2 VCC
V1 10V

R10 R9
R1 10kOhm
1.0kOhm 60%

Calculate Vo for the circuit above

Key = A
500 Ohm
 Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge

Solution Wheatstone Bridge

R1(Vcc) 1K(10V)
V1    3.125 V
Wheatstone Bridge R1  R2 1K  2.2K

VCC
10V

40% 40%(R10)  0.4(500 )

R11
R2 330ohm 60%
2.2kOhm
40%(R10)  200
Key = A 60%
500 Ohm
V2 R10
V1
R10
R1
1.0kOhm
60%
40%(R10)(V cc) 200(10V)
V2    3.773 V
40%(R10)  R11 200  330
Key = A
500 Ohm
 Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge
VEE
-10V
Buffer
4

2
U1

3
741
6
VoU1
Buffer
7 1 5

10V
VCC
The output signal is exactly
VEE
the same as the input
VCC
10V
-10V
VoU2
voltage.
4
(i.e., voltage gain = 1), then
R11 2
U2
R2 330ohm 6
2.2kOhm 741
3

7 1 5
V2=3.773V
VCC
VoU1 = V1 = 3.125V
V1=3.125V 10V

R10 Buffer
R1
1.0kOhm
60% VoU2 = V2 = 3.773V

Key = A
500 Ohm
 VEE
Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge
-10V

2
Differential Amp
U1 VoU1= 3.125V R3
6
741
3 1.2kOhm_5%

7 1 5
VEE
-10V C1
VCC
10V
4 0.1uF
VEE R4
2
VCC -10V 1.0kOhm U3
VoU2=3.773V R6 6
10V 741
3 VoU3
4
1.0kOhm
7 1 5
2 R5 C2
R11 U2 1.2kOhm_5%
R2 330ohm 6
2.2kOhm 741
3 VCC 0.1uF
10V
7 1 5

V2 VCC
V1 10V VoU3  ( VoU2 - VoU1)Av
R10
R1 60% - R3 - 1.2K
1.0kOhm
Av    1.2
R4 1K
Key = A

VoU3  (3.773 - 3.125)(1.2 )  - 0.777V

500 Ohm
 VEE Laboratory 1: Wheatstone Bridge
-10V

2
Inverting Amp
U1 VoU1 R3
6 R12
741
3 1.2kOhm_5%
2.7kOhm_5%
7 1 5
VEE
-10V C1 VEE
VCC
-10V
10V
4 0.1uF
VEE R4 4
2 R7
VCC -10V U3
VoU2 1.0kOhm
6 2
10V R6 741 1.0kOhm U4 Vo
4 3 VoU3= -0.777 6
1.0kOhm 741
3
7 1 5
2 R5 C2 R8
R11 U2 1.2kOhm_5% 1.0kOhm 7 1 5
R2 330ohm 6
2.2kOhm 741
3 VCC 0.1uF
10V VCC
7 1 5
10V
V2 VCC
V1 10V Vo  Av(VoU3)
R10
R9
R1 60%
- R12 - 2.7K 10kOhm

Av    -2.7
1.0kOhm

R7 1K
Key = A
500 Ohm

Vo  -2.7(-0.77 7V)  2.09V