LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

Chapter 6

A Tour of the Cell

Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life
• All organisms are made of cells
• Cell structure  function
• All cells are related by their descent from earlier
cells

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Microscopy
• Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too
small to see with the naked eye
• In a light microscope (LM), visible light is
passed through a specimen and then through
glass lenses
• Lenses refract (bend) the light, so that the image
is magnified

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 • Three important parameters of microscopy
– Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size
– Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the
image, or the minimum distance of two
distinguishable points
– Contrast, visible differences in parts of the
sample

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Figure 6.2 10 m

Human height
1m
Length of some
nerve and

Unaided eye
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg

1 cm

Frog egg
1 mm

Light microscopy
Human egg
100 m
Most plant and
animal cells
10 m
Nucleus
Most bacteria

Electron microscopy
Mitochondrion
1 m

Smallest bacteria Super-

100 nm
Viruses resolution
microscopy
Ribosomes
10 nm
Proteins
Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms
Figure 6.3
Light Microscopy (LM) Electron Microscopy (EM)
Brightfield Confocal Longitudinal section Cross section
(unstained specimen) of cilium of cilium
Cilia

50 m
Brightfield
(stained specimen)

50 m
2 m

2 m Transmission electron
Scanning electron microscopy (TEM)
Deconvolution
microscopy (SEM)
Phase-contrast

10 m
Differential-interference-
contrast (Nomarski) Super-resolution

Fluorescence
1 m

10 m
 • LMs can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times
the size of the actual specimen
• Stain/contrast techniques reveal detail
• Most subcellular structures, including
organelles (membrane-enclosed
compartments), are too small to see with light
microscope

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 • Two kinds of electron microscopes (EMs)
1. Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) look
at surface of a specimen, take 3-D photos
2. Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
focus a beam of electrons through a thin slice of
a specimen
– TEMs are used to study the internal structure of cells

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 • light microscopy – more detail than in the past
– Confocal microscopy, deconvolution
• sharper images of 3-D tissues and cells
– New techniques for labeling cells improve
resolution

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Cell Fractionation
• Cell fractionation – taking
cells apart to look at the
organelles & study function
• Centrifuges separate
organelles by fractionate
• Biochemistry and cytology
help correlate cell function
with structure

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Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal
membranes that compartmentalize their
functions
• two types:
1. prokaryotic (bacteria/Archaea)
2. eukaryotic (nucleus)
•
Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
• Basic features of all cells
– Plasma membrane
– Semifluid substance called cytosol
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
• Many cell types have walls
– Some bacteria (peptidoglycans)
– Some fungi (chitin)
– Some protists (silicon)
– Most plants (cellulose)

– NOT ANIMALS (no wall)

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
• Many cell types can do photosynthesis
– Some bacteria
– Some protists
– Almost ALL plants (exception: dodder)

– NOT ANIMALS or fungi (unless stolen organelle

or symbiont)

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 • Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
– No nucleus
– DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
– No membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 6.5

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome Cell wall

Capsule

0.5 m
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
 • Eukaryotic cells have
– DNA in a nucleus (“nuclear envelope”)
– organelles
– Cytoplasm between the plasma membrane
and nucleus

• Eukaryotic cells are usually prokaryotic cells

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 plasma membrane
• Semi-permeables: controls what gets in or out
of cell (oxygen, nutrients, waste)

• Mostly a double layer of phospholipids

• Other parts of membrane include Lots of other

proteins and carbohydrates

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Figure 6.6
(a) TEM of a plasma
Outside of cell membrane

Inside of cell
0.1 m
Carbohydrate side chains

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic Phospholipid Proteins
region
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
 • Why cells don’t get too big:
• They need enough surface area to exchange
oxygen/waste/nutrients
• Small cells have a greater surface area relative
to volume

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A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
• A eukaryotic cell: membrane-bound organelles
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles

BioFlix: Tour of an Animal Cell

BioFlix: Tour of a Plant Cell

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Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic
instructions are housed in the nucleus and
carried out by the ribosomes
• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a
eukaryotic cell
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to
make proteins

• Chef cartoon!

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The Nucleus: Information Central
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes
and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
• Mitochondria have own DNA and ribosomes
• The nuclear envelope around nucleus
• a double membrane; each membrane consists
of a lipid bilayer

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Figure 6.9
1 m
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER
Pore
complex
Surface of nuclear
envelope Ribosome

Close-up
0.25 m

of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
1 m

Pore complexes (TEM)

Nuclear lamina (TEM)

 Nuclear Pores (windows on the castle)
• Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules
from the nucleus
• The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein

• Proteins control membrane shape (true of many

membranes, not just this one)

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 • DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid
• Chromatin = DNA wrapped
around histone proteins

• Chromosomes = long chain

of chromatin
(one long DNA molecule and the histone
proteins it is wrapped around)

Looks like this @ cell division 

spread out the rest of time

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 nucleolus

• Part of the nucleus

• Where we make rRNA
– Major part of ribosome (chef)

All RNA is made in the nucleus

Reading DNA to make RNA is called “transcription”
(monk-like “scribe”)

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Ribosomes: Chef that makes Proteins
• Part rRNA, part protein
• Found in two places in cell
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
Floating between nucleus and plasma memb.
– Stuck to endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear
envelope (bound ribosomes)
May be able to move in or out of ER

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Figure 6.10

0.25 m

Free ribosomes in cytosol

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit

Small
subunit
TEM showing ER and
ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome
Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system
regulates protein traffic and performs
metabolic functions in the cell
• Components of the endomembrane system
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic
Factory
• ER >50% of membranes in eukaryotic cells
• continuous with the nuclear envelope
• There are two distinct regions of ER
– Smooth ER, no ribosomes
– Rough ER, covered in ribosomes

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Functions of Smooth ER
• The smooth ER
– makes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and poisons
– Stores calcium ions
• “sarcoplasmic reticulum”

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Functions of Rough ER
• The rough ER
– bound ribosomes
• Make glycoproteins (proteins + carb)

– Gives off transport vesicles, proteins

surrounded by membranes

– Is a membrane factory for the cell

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Golgi Apparatus: Shipping & Receiving Center
Golgi apparatus: membranous sacs (cisternae)
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus
– Modifies ER products
– Sorts & packages stuff into transport vesicles
– Makes some macromolecules

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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• Cell’s mobile stomach unit
• Lysosome: membranous sac full of
hydrolytic enzymes (work best in acid)
– digests macromolecules
• Proteins
• Fats
• Polysaccharides
• nucleic acids

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 • Some types of cell can eat another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and
digests the molecules (breaks it apart)
• Lysosomes also do “autophagy” (self eating)
– Break down cell’s own old or unneeded organelles
and macromolecules,
– Can reuse parts

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 Vacuoles: Maintenance Compartments
• In plant cell or fungal cell
• can have one or several vacuoles
• derived from ER and Golgi apparatus

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 • Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
– Water wants to dilute stuff, often flowing into cells
– Must pump extra out
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant
cells, hold organic compounds and water

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The Endomembrane System: A Review
• The endomembrane system is a complex and
dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental
organization

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Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
• Mitochondria: where respiration happens
• Uses sugar and oxygen to make ATP
Found in ALL eukaryotes

• Chloroplasts: where photosynthesis happens

– found in plants and some protists (algae)
– Not found in animals or fungi
no photosynthesis unless symbiosis or theft

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Weird Stuff

• Prokaryotes don’t have chloroplasts

• No membrane bound organelles
• Some still do photosynthesis

• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

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Evolutionary Origins: Mitochondria & Chloroplasts

• Similar to bacteria
– free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
– Can grow & reproduce independently in cells
• Enveloped by a double membrane

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 • The Endosymbiont theory
– An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed
a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which
formed an endosymbiont relationship with its
host
– The host cell and endosymbiont merged into
a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a
mitochondrion
– At least one of these cells may have taken up
a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the
ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts

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Figure 6.16
Endoplasmic Nucleus
reticulum

Engulfing of oxygen- Nuclear

using nonphotosynthetic envelope
prokaryote, which
becomes a mitochondrion

Mitochondrion Ancestor of
eukaryotic cells
(host cell)

Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote
At least
Nonphotosynthetic one cell Chloroplast
eukaryote

Mitochondrion
Photosynthetic eukaryote
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria in nearly all eukaryotic cells
• smooth outer membrane & inner membrane
folded into cristae
• two compartments:
– intermembrane space
• H+ pumped to here
– mitochondrial matrix
• H+ flows passively to here

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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP

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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• Chloroplasts have chlorophyll
• found in
– Leaves
– other green organs of plants
– algae

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 • Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membrane sacs (hydrogen ions)
– Granum: stacks of thylakoids
– Stroma, fluid filled space around thylakoids

• The chloroplast is one of a group of plant

organelles, called plastids
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Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• specialized metabolic compartments
• single membrane
• Make hydrogen peroxide & convert to water
• Peroxisomes perform reactions with many
different functions

• How peroxisomes are related to other organelles

is still unknown

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 Concept 6.6: cytoskeleton - protein fibers to
organize structures and activities in the cell
• fibers extend throughout cytoplasm
• Organizes cell’s structures and activities
• anchors many organelles
• three types
– Microtubules
– Intermediate filaments
– Microfilaments

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 6.20

10 m
Cytoskeleton job: Support and Motility
• Supports cell and maintains shape
• Interacts with motor proteins to produce motility
• vesicles can travel along microtubules

• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton

may help regulate biochemical activities
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Components of the Cytoskeleton
• Three main types of fibers
– Microtubules: thickest
– Intermediate filaments are fibers with
diameters in a middle range
– Microfilaments: thinnest

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Table 6.1

10 m 10 m 5 m

Column of tubulin dimers

Keratin proteins
Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)

7 nm 812 nm

  Tubulin dimer
Microtubules
• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in
diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long
• Functions of microtubules
– Shaping the cell
– Guiding movement of organelles
– Separating chromosomes during cell division

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 Centrosomes and Centrioles
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing
center”
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring

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Figure 6.22

Centrosome Microtubule

Centrioles
0.25 m

Longitudinal
section of
one centriole

Microtubules Cross section

of the other centriole
 Cilia and Flagella
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia and
flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns

Video: Chlamydomonas

Video: Paramecium Cilia

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 • Cilia and flagella share a common structure
– microtubules sheathed by plasma membrane
– basal body to anchor the cilium or flagellum
– Dynein: motor protein that bends cilia/flagella

Animation: Cilia and Flagella

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 • How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia
− Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release
the outer microtubules
– Protein cross-links limit sliding
– Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to
curve, bending the cilium or flagellum

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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments:twisted double chain of actin

• resist pulling forces within the cell

• Cortex: 3-D network inside plasma membrane

support the cell’s shape

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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells

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 • Microfilaments: part of muscle contraction
• Actin fibers pulled on by myosin fibers

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 • Localized contraction brought about by actin and
myosin also drives amoeboid movement
• Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and
contract through the reversible assembly and
contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

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 • Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells
• This streaming speeds distribution of materials
within the cell
• In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-
gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming

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Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from
8–12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments but
smaller than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in
place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes

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Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and
connections between cells help coordinate
cellular activities
• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that
are external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions

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Cell Walls of Plants
• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that
distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have
cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein

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 • Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls
of adjacent cells
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added
between the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall
• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent
plant cells

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Figure 6.28

Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella

1 m
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata
 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal
Cells
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an
elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the
plasma membrane called integrins

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Figure 6.30

Collagen Polysaccharide
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
molecule

Proteoglycan Carbo-
complex hydrates

Fibronectin Core
protein

Integrins

Proteoglycan
molecule
Plasma
membrane Proteoglycan complex

Micro- CYTOPLASM
filaments
 • Functions of the ECM
– Support
– Adhesion
– Movement
– Regulation

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Cell Junctions
• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ
systems often adhere, interact, and
communicate through direct physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
• There are several types of intercellular junctions
– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions

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Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate
plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small
solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can
pass from cell to cell

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Figure 6.31

Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell
0.5 m Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
 Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap
Junctions in Animal Cells
• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring
cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

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Figure 6.32

Tight junctions prevent

fluid from moving Tight junction
across a layer of cells

TEM
0.5 m

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments

Desmosome

TEM
1 m
Gap
junction

Ions or small
molecules

Space

TEM
between cells
Extracellular
Plasma membranes matrix
of adjacent cells 0.1 m
The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the
Sum of Its Parts
• Cells rely on the integration of structures and
organelles in order to function
• For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy
bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
components such as the cytoskeleton,
lysosomes, and plasma membrane

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Figure 6.33

5 m
Figure 6.UN01
Nucleus

(ER)

(Nuclear
envelope)