Chapter 7 – Composites

Pivotal Questions:
- What are composite materials?
- How are they made?
- What happens to obsolete composites?
Composites
 Much like metal alloys, composites blend two or
more material together to form a new material
with different properties than either parent
 Unlike alloys, each parent material in a composite
continues to exist in a distinct phase
 Four classes of composites:
 Fiber-reinforced
 Particulate
 Laminar
 Hybrid
Fiber-Reinforced Composites
 Consist of two phases: Fibers and Matrix
 Fibers:
 Strong and stiff
 Designed to withstand the tensile load
 Carbon, glass, steel, high-performance polymers, glass,
titanium and tungsten are common fiber types
 Matrix
 Surrounds and orients the fiber
 Protects fibers from environment and transfers load
 Polyester and epoxy resins are common matrix
materials
Fiber-Reinforced Composites Span
the Technology Spectrum
 Bricks dating from antiquity are fiber-reinforced
composites with straw fibers aligned in a clay matrix
 Rebar-reinforced concrete used in modern bridges and
other construction applications represent a medium
technology application
 Carbon fiber-reinforced composites used in military
and aerospace applications represent the cutting edge
Properties of Fiber-Reinforced
Composites
 Strong fibers are selected to handle tensile loads
 The ability of the matrix to transfer load to the fibers is
an essential factor in composite properties
 The ability to transfer load is a function of the bonding
between the fiber and matrix, which is impacted by:
 Size of the fiber
 Orientation of the fiber
 Surface chemistry of the fiber
 Amount of voids present
 Level of curing
Anisotropy of Fiber-Reinforced
Composites
 Composite properties are very different in the
direction in which the fibers are aligned (the
longitudinal direction) than they are in the
direction perpendicular to the fibers (the transverse
direction)
 Aligned fibers all contribute to handling a longitudinal
load, but contribute almost nothing to handling a
transverse load
 Composite with randomly oriented fibers are isotropic,
but the majority of fibers provide little benefit to any
specific load direction
Impact of Fiber Length and
diameter
 Fibers can be any length from a few millimeters to
several kilometers in the case of continuous
monofilaments
 Long fibers support loads more efficiently than shorter
fibers because there are fewer ends
 Typical diameters for reinforcing fibers range from 7 to
150 microns (a human hair is about 80 microns thick)
 Thinner fibers tend to be stronger because their
reduced surface area makes them less susceptible to
surface defects
Aspect Ratio
 Aspect Ratio is the ratio of fiber length to diameter
(l/d)
 Large aspect ratios result in stronger composites, but
they are more difficult to orient and are often limited
by the size of the composite itself
 Designers define a critical length (lc) above which the
fiber behaves roughly as if it were infinitely long
lc = sfd/2ti
where sf is the tensile strength of the fiber, d is the
fiber diameter, and ti is an empirical constant called
the wet out that relates to the quality of bonding
between the fiber and matrix
Rule of mixtures
 For many properties, a simple mixing rule based on
volume fractions (f) applies. In such cases, equation
7.2 applies
ff + fm + f v = 1 where
ff is the volume fraction of fibers
fm is the volume fraction of matrix
f v is the volume fraction on voids
Properties that follow simple
mixing rules
 Density: rc = rfff + rmfm

 Thermal conductivity: kc = kfff + kmfm

 Electrical conductivity: sc = sfff + smfm

(note that the density, thermal conductivity, and

electrical conductivity of a void are zero, so they do not
appear in the above equations, though the voids still
impact the calculation of f)
Behavior under stress
 If the quality of bonding between the fiber and matrix
is sufficient, they elongate at the same rate under
stress and experience the same strain (an isostrain
condition)
 The strain behavior is often more complex because the
fibers were selected because they have a much higher
yield strength than the matrix
 When the yield strength of the matrix is exceed, it
begins to experience plastic deformation while the
fibers remain in elastic stretching
 Load is passed to the fibers and the composite does
not fail at stresses that would destroy the matrix
Fiber Pull-out
 The previous analysis assumes high-quality bonding
between the fiber and matrix
 When the bonding is less strong, the bonds between
the fiber and matrix break, resulting in fiber pull out
 The load cannot be transferred and the matrix behaves
as if it were not reinforced at all
Transverse Properties
Impact of Fiber Amount
 The amount of fiber impacts both performance and
cost
 More fiber leads to stronger composites, but the cost of
fiber is usually much greater than the cost of the
matrix
 Above 80% fiber, there is not enough matrix material
to completely surround and bond with the fiber to
transfer the load
 Most fiber reinforced composites contain between 35-
50% fiber by volume
Impact of Orientation – Uniaxial
Composites
 Fibers aligned along a single
axis in almost perfect
alignment

 Composite is much stronger

in the longitudinal direction
than the transverse
Impact of Orientation – Chopped
Fiber Composites
 The random orientation of
small chopped fibers provides
essentially isotropic
properties in all directions

 Because the fibers are smaller

and only a fraction are
oriented in any specific
direction, they are much less
strong than uniaxial
composites
Impact of Orientation – Chopped
Fiber Composites
 Two- and three-dimensional
woven mats allow for high
strength in more than one
direction

 The more complicated weave

pattern results in far more
expensive composites
Manufacture of Fiber -Reinforced
Composites
 Commercial fiber-reinforced composites are produced
through a variety of techniques including:
 Resin Formulation
 Pultrusion
 Wet-Filament Winding
 Resin Transfer Molding
 Prepregging
Resin Formulation
 The simplest production strategy
 Bits of chopped fiber and poured or blown into the matrix
material (often already in the desired mould)
 Curing agents, accelerators, diluents, fillers, and pigments
are added as well
 The matrix material hardens into the shape of the mold
Pultrusion
 Large numbers of single strands are wound in parallel
to form a roving.
 Many rovings are connected into a device called a creel
that lets fibers to be pulled together
 Fibers are coated with matrix material and are cured in
a heated die then cut into shape

Pultrusion
Wet Filament Winding
 Continuous fibers from
rovings are pulled through a
resin impregnation bath then
wound into the desired shape

 When enough wet filaments

are wound around the part, it
is taken to a curing oven to
complete a composite of the
desired shape

Wet Winding
Resin Transfer Molding
 Woven fiber mats are placed
into a space between the top
and bottom mold
 Resin is injected through the
top cavity under sufficient
pressure to ensure that it
penetrates and surrounds the
mat
 The molds are cured using
heat and pressure to create a
composite part in the shape
of the mold
Prepregging
 Fibers are passed through an impregnation bath that
coats them with small quantities of resin
 They are then passed through a furnace and heated
slightly to ensure that the resin sticks to the fiber
 The resulting coated fibers (prepreg) can be used later
to form composites

Prepregging
Selection of Reinforcing Fibers
 Most important properties are specific strength, cost,
and ability to bond with the matrix
 Specific strength is tensile strength divided by density
 Ceramic fibers tend to be strong and stiff, but dense
 Glass fibers offer chemical resistance and blend of
properties but are easily broken during processing
 Metals are strong but are also heavy
 High performance polymers are strong and light, but
have trouble withstanding compressive forces
Selection of Matrix Materials -
Resins
 Polyester Resins - most common and economical resin.
 Isophthalic Polyester Resins – used when water resistance is
needed
 Epoxy Resins – more expensive but provide improved
mechanical properties and exceptional environmental resistance
 Vinyl Ester Resins – compromise between the economic
advantages of polyester and the properties of epoxy
 Phenolic Resins – Poor mechanical properties but excellent fire
resistance
 Polyimide Resins – expensive and used only for high-end
applications such as missiles and military aircraft
Alternative Matrix Materials
 Metal Matrix Composites (often using aluminum)
offer
 High strength
 Excellent environmental resistance (including the fact that
they do not burn)
 Greater thermal conductivity and abrasion resistance
 Ceramic Matrix Composites offer:
 Increased fracture toughness
 Ability to withstand extremely high temperatures
 Corrosion resistance
Particulate Composites
 Are less strong than fiber-reinforced but far less expensive
and much easier to manufacture
 Contain a large number of randomly oriented particles
called aggregate that help the composite withstand
compressive loads
 Tend to be isotropic and are free from orientation issues
 Include the most important commercial composite –
concrete (a blend of gravel and Portland Cement)
Concrete
 Technically, a generic term but now used almost
exclusively for Portland Cement-based concrete
 First use dates back to 1756
 More than six billion tons produced each year
 Contains Portland Cement, aggregate, water (to
induce hydration reactions), and admixtures (additives
designed to alter specific properties)
Types of Admixtures in Concrete
 Hydration Catalysts – alter the rate of hydration in
the Portland Cement. Accelerators speed up the
reactions, while retarders slow them down
 Pigments – provide color for aesthetic value
 Air-Entrainers – cause tiny air bubbles to form and
distribute throughout the concrete to withstand the
freeze-thaw expansion cycles without failing
 Plasticizers – reduce the viscosity of the cement
paste, making it easier to flow the concrete mixture
into its final form
Impact of Aggregate Size
 Aggregate size impacts
fatigue resistance, stiffness,
moisture resistance,
workability and stiffness
 Small aggregates produce
stronger concrete but are
harder to work with
 A distribution of sizes are
commonly used so that small
particles fill the voids
between larger ones, as
shown on the right
Other Aggregate Factors
 Smooth pebbles have a much smaller surface area-to-
volume ration than rough irregular ones, thus more
cement is required to achieve the same level of
bonding
 Surface chemistry impacts how well the aggregate
bonds with the cement. For example, limestone
(CaCO3) bonds more effectively than gravel or other
aggregates
Measurement of Mechanical
Properties of Concrete
 The mechanical properties of concrete change over
long periods of time
 As such, a standard period of measurement (28 days of
hardening at 100% humidity) is used to compare
samples
 The stress-strain curve for concrete is highly non-
linear, making the modulus of elasticity vary with
strain
 The American Concrete Institute (ACI) specifies an
effective secant modulus of elasticity (Ec)
Modulus of Rupture
 The tensile strength of concrete is much lower than its
compressive strength, so it always fails in tension
 The maximum tensile strength at the bottom of the
test beam is called the Modulus of Rupture and it
can be calculated from the Maximum 28-day
compressive strength using the ACI formula
Use of Rebar
 Steel-deformed reinforcing bars (Rebar) is used to add
strength to concrete
 The result is a hybrid composite with the concrete
serving as the matrix and the rebar handling tensile
loads
 Rebar is characterized by bar size
Rebar Specifications
Asphalt Concrete (also called
asphalt cement or asphalt)
 Familiar blacktop material used on roadways and parking lots
 Asphalt concrete is a blend of a mineral aggregate in an asphalt
(high molecular weight residue from pertroleum distillation)
binder
 Asphalt is the most recycled material in the world
 The initial cost of asphalt is much less than concrete, but lasts
only half as long
 Asphalt deforms under the compressive loads caused by heavy
trucks
 Asphalt is less slip resistant and tends to absorb heat
Types of Asphalt (concrete)
processing techniques
 Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete (HMAC) Process – uses asphalt
softened at 160°C before mixing the aggregate then the road is
compacted at 140°C. Significant amount of organic vapors are
released
 Warm-Mix Asphalt Concrete (WAM) Process – uses zeolites
to reduce the softening temperature by as much as 25°C,
resulting in reduced emissions and lower costs
 Cold-Mix Asphalt Process – adds water and surfactant
molecules to the asphalt before mixing it with the aggregate.
When the water evaporates, the properties are similar to asphalt
produced by the HMAC process. Used for patches.
Laminar Composites
 Consists of alternating layers of two-dimensional
materials with an anisotropic orientation that are
connected together by layers of matrix materials
 Most common commercial laminar composite is
Plywood, layers of wood veneers bonded together by
adhesives
 Plywood is more resistant to shrinking and warping
than regular wood because of crossbanding, in which
the grain of each layer is 90° offset from the previous
layer
Other Commercial Laminar
Composites
 Windshield Safety Glass (already discussed in chapter
1)
 Snow Skis – originally produced from layers of
fiberglass and wood, but now made from a complex
blend of layers of sintered polyethylene, steel, rubber,
carbon, fiberglass, and wool)
 Tire Rubber – 28% carbon black in a polyisobutylene
matrix
Sandwich Composites
 Used to increase strength
with little weight (often in
aerospace applications)
 Strong titanium or aluminum
face sheets are separated by a
low density material in the
honeycomb structure shown
on the right.
 In simple applications, the
honeycomb can be made of
cardboard, but high-
performance polymers are
used for higher-end
applications
Recycling of Composite Materials
 More than 98% of composites are incinerated or landfilled
 The limited recycling has involved grinding, chipping, or
shearing the used composite to be used as filler in new
composites
 The supply of excess composite materials far exceeds the
demand, but the European Union is requiring increased
responsibility for recycling the final products