Basic Chemistry 1

CH1200 UNIT 1
CH1200 UNIT 1.0 CHEMICAL TERMINOLOGY
1.1.1 DEFINE CHEMISTRY

The study of the
composition, properties
and transformations of
matter.
CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

1.1.2 AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION
• Analytical Chemistry
• Organic Chemistry
• Environmental Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Engineering Chemistry

1.1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• Significant Figures apply to the reporting of

measurements taken in chemistry.
• Significant figures include the certain digits
of a measurement and the first uncertain
digit.

1.1.3 RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. ALL NONZERO DIGITS ARE SIGNIFICANT.
2. LEADING ZEROS THAT BEGIN A MEASURE

ARE NEVER SIGNIFICANT.
3. CAPTIVE ZEROS BETWEEN NON-ZERO

DIGITS ARE ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT
4. TRAILING ZEROS ARE ONLY SIGNIFICANT

IF THE MEASURE IS WRITTEN WITH A
DECIMAL POINT
5. EXACT NUMBERS ARE ALWAYS

SIGNIFICANT
1.1.3 ROUNDING OFF MEASUREMENTS
Sometimes it is necessary to Round Off

numbers in calculations to maintain the
correct number of Significant Figures.
If the digit to be removed

a) is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the
same. Ex: 1.33 rounds to 1.3
b) is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding
digit is increased by 1. Ex: 1.36 rounds to
1.4 Ex: 3.15 rounds to 3.2
When using your calculator , round off the final
answer only.

1.1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
For multiplication and division, the number of
significant figures in the result is the same as that
in the measurement with the smallest number of
significant figures.
Ex: 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 or 6.4

Since 1.4 has only 2 significant figures so must the
final answer.
Ex: 8.315 = 0.0279027 or 0.0279

298
Since 298 has only 3 significant figures so must the
final answer.
1.1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN ADDITION
AND SUBTRACTION
For addition and subtraction , the number of
significant figures in the result is set by the
measurement with the least number of
decimal places.
Ex: 12.11
18.0
1.013
31. 123 rounds off to 31.1
Since the second measure (18.0) has only 1
decimal place, this limits the number of
digits in the final answer.

1.1.4 METRIC UNITS
The Metric System of Measurement uses SI

Units.
Physical Basic Unit Abbreviation
Quantity
Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K

Figure 2.3: A 100-ml Graduated
Cylinder

1.1.4 Measuring Mass
Most commonly used Metric Units for Mass
Unit Symbol Gram Equivalent
Kilogram Kg 1000 g = 103 g = 1Kg
Gram g 1g
Milligram mg 0.001 g = 10-3g = 1mg

1.1.4 Measuring Length
Most Commonly used Metric Units for Length
Unit Symbol Meter Equivalent
Kilometer Km 1000 m or 103 m
Meter M 1m
Centimeter cm 0.01 m or 10-2 m
Millimeter mm 0.001 m or 10-3 m

1.1.4 Measuring Volume
Most commonly used Metric Units for Volume
Unit Symbol Liter Equivalent
Liter L 1000mL = 103mL
Milliliter mL 1/1000 L = 10-3L = 1 mL

Figure 2.5: Measuring a Pin

Figure 2.1: Comparison of English and metric units for length on a ruler

Figure 2.6: Thermometers based on the three temperature scales in (a) ice water and (b)
boiling water

Figure 2.7: The three major temperature scales

Figure 2.8: Converting 70°C to units measured on the Kelvin scale

Figure 2.9: Comparison of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

Figure 2.10: (a) Tank of water. (b) Person submerged in the tank, raising the level of the water.

Table 2.2: The Commonly used Prefixes in the Metric System

Table 2.2: The Commonly used Prefixes in the Metric System

Table 2.3: The Metric System for Measuring Length

Figure 2.2: Cubes

2.4.4 CHEMICAL CHANGES
Chemical Changes involve

the formation of a
completely new
substance.
Ex: Hydrogen and
Oxygen form Water
Iron nails rust
when exposed to air
Wood burns in air
Milk turns sour if
left out of the fridge
Bread rises with
yeast action
CH 1200 UNIT 2College of the North Atlantic Qatar

2.5.1 PROPERTIES OF METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
1. All metals are solid (except for Mercury)

2. Metals conduct Heat
3. Metals conduct electricity
4. Metals have a shiny appearance
5. Metals are malleable – can be hammered
into thin sheets
6. Metals are ductile – can be drawn into
thin wires

2.5.2 PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS
1. Non-metals can be solids, liquids or

gases.
2. Non-metals do not conduct heat.
3. Non-metals do not conduct electricity
4. Non-metals do not have a shiny
appearance.
5. Non-metals are not malleable.
6. Non-metals are not ductile.

2.5.3 PROPERTIES OF METTALOIDS
Metalloid: An element which has both metallic

and non-metallic properties.
The list of metalloids includes:

Silicon
Germanium
Arsenic
Antimony
Tellurium
These elements have some metallic
properties and some metallic properties.

2.5.3 PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS
METALLIC PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS:

- All metalloids are solids at room
temperature
- Most metalloids are shiny in appearance
NON-METALLIC PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS:

- Metalloids are brittle and not malleable
- Metalloids are not good conductors of Heat
or Electricity

2.5.4 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS
Symbols are used to represent Chemical

Elements. Symbols may be 1 or 2 letters.
The symbol may come from the English
name or from the Latin or Greek name.
SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 1 - 10

Hydrogen - H Carbon -C
Helium - He Nitrogen -N
Lithium - Li Oxygen -O
Beryllium - Be Fluorine -F
Boron - B Neon - Ne

2.5.4 SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS
SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 11 – 20
Sodium - Na
Magnesium - Mg
Aluminum - Al
Silicon - Si
Phosphorus -P
Sulfur -S
Chlorine - Cl
Argon - Ar
Potassium -K
Calcium - Ca
2.5.4 SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS
The symbols for some elements come from

ancient Latin or Greek names. Knowing the
ancient name helps us remember the
symbol.
Element OLD NAME SYMBOL
SODIUM Natrium Na
POTASSIUM Kalium K
GOLD Aurum Au
SILVER Argentum Ag
IRON Ferrum Fe
LEAD Plumbum Pb
COPPER Cuprum Cu
MERCURY Hydragyrum Hg

2.5.5 DEFINE MOLECLAR FORMULA
• Molecular Formula: The exact formula of a

molecule, giving the types of atoms present
and the numbers of each type.
The type of atom is indicated by the symbol.
The number of each atom is indicated by the

subscripts.

2.5.5 SAMPLE MOLECULAR FORMULAS
Water H2O contains 2 atoms of Hydrogen (H)

and 1 atom of Oxygen (O).
Carbon Dioxide CO2 contains 1 atom of Carbon

(C) and 2 atoms of Oxygen (O)
Sucrose or sugar C12H22O11 contains 12 atoms

of Carbon (C) , 22 atoms of Hydrogen (H)
and 11 atoms of Oxygen (O).

2.5.6 NAMING ELEMENTS IN A MOLECULE
Elements in a molecule can be named by

having a knowledge of the Symbols on the
Periodic Table.
NaCl - Sodium Chloride
MgBr2 - Magnesium Bromide
Al2O3 - Aluminum Oxide
NO2 - Nitrogen Dioxide

2.5.7 LIST ATOMS IN A MOLECULE
Consider Ammonium Carbonate

Molecular Formula (NH4)2CO3
Element # Atoms Present

Nitrogen 2
[There is only one N visible but the “2” on
the round brackets doubles all atoms inside]
Hydrogen 8
[There are only 4 Hydrogen visible but the
“2” on the round bracket makes it 8]
Carbon 1
Oxygen 3
[The subscript “3” on the Oxygen triples the
total number of O present]
3.1.1 LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
• Law of Definite Proportions: States that
different samples of a pure substance always
contains the same proportion of elements by
mass.
Example: Every molecule of water H2O
contains 1 part Hydrogen and 8 parts
Oxygen by mass.
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3.1.2 LAW OF CONSERVATIONOF MASS
• Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is
neither created or destroyed in normal
chemical reactions.
The total mass of all reactants = the total
mass of all products.
* Note → Nuclear reactions are an exception

to this rule covered by E = M C 2
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3.1.3 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• Law of Conservation of Energy:

Energy can not be created or
destroyed … only changed from one
form to another.
Example: Exothermic reactions are
chemical reactions which release heat.
This heat is not being “created” by the
reaction, just released from its
original form. This energy existed in
the form of chemical energy in the
bonds of the reactants..
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3.1.4 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY
• Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy:

The total amount of Matter and Energy in the
Universe is Constant. If the amount of
Energy Increases, the amount of Matter
must Decrease.
Example: In Nuclear Reactions, a small
amount of Matter disappears and is replaced
by an equivalent amount of Energy.
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4.1.1 ATOMIC WEIGHT SCALE
Atomic Weight Scale: An atomic weight scale
is used to measure small particles such as
atoms and molecules.
Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) : This is the basic unit
of the atomic weight scale.
1 AMU = 1.66 x 10 -24 g
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4.1.2 ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENTS
Elements exist as different isotopes therefore
all atoms of an element are not exactly equal
in mass.
Example: C – 12 and C – 14
C – 12 has 6 p+ , 6 no and 6 e - giving it an
atomic mass of 12 AMU
C – 14 has 6 p+ , 8 no and 6 e - giving it an
atomic mass of 14 AMU
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4.1.2 ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENTS
Average Atomic Mass: The atomic mass
reported on the Periodic Table reflects the
average atomic mass of all isotopes of the
element. This average is a weighted average
which reflects the relative abundance of all
isotopes of atoms of that element.
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4.1.3 MOLECULAR MASS
Molecular Mass: The mass of a molecule which
is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms
present in the molecule.
Example: CO2 has a molecular mass of 44.01
g.
C 12.01 x 1 = 12.01 g
O 16.00 x 2 = 32.00 g
44.01 g
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4.1.4 CALCULATING MOLECULAR MASS OF MOLECULES
Molecular Masses of Elements.

The molecular mass of most elements on the
Periodic Table is listed as the Atomic Mass.
Examples: H 1.008 g
B 10.81 g
C 12.00 g
Ca 40.08 g
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4.1.4 MOLECULAR MASSES OF ELEMENTS
Special Molecular Masses to Remember:
Phosphorus: This element exists as FOUR
Phosphorus atoms P4
The Atomic Mass of Phosphorus is 30.97 g.
The Molecular Mass of Phosphorus P4
P4 30.97 g x 4 = 123.88 g
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Sulfur: This element exists as an Eight
Membered Ring of sulfur atoms S8
The Atomic Mass of Sulfur is 32.07 g.
The Molecular Mass of Sulfur S8
S8 32.07 g x 8 = 256.56 g
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Diatomic Gases: These elements exists as
Diatomic Molecules and their Molecular Mass
is double the Atomic Mass on the Periodic
Table.
The Diatomic Gases are H2 N2 O 2
F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
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Diatomic Gases:
Nitrogen N has a mass of 14.01 g
Nitrogen Gas is Diatomic so its Molecular
Mass is …
N2 14.01 g x 2 = 28.02 g
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4.1.5 GRAM ATOMIC WEIGHT
• Gram Atomic Weight: A term which relates
the Atomic Weight of an atom in grams.
Gram Atomic Weights are based on a system
of Relative weights.
• The standard used is the Carbon atom which
has a mass of exactly 12.00 g.
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4.1.5 GRAM ATOMIC WEIGHT
• Relative Atomic Weights:
The mass of one Carbon atom is taken
as exactly 12.00 g. In this way one
Hydrogen atom has 1/12 this mass
which is 1.0 g.
Carbon has 12 subatomic particles with
mass
(6 p+ and 6 no) .
Hydrogen has 1/12 as many subatomic
particles compared to Carbon. (1 p+)
Magnesium has 24 subatomic particles
and therefore a relative atomic mass
of 24.00 g.
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4.1.6 GRAM MOLECULAR WEIGHT
• Gram Molecular Weight: A term which
relates the Molecular Weight of a molecule in
grams. Gram Molecular Weights are also
based on the Relative Weight System.
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4.1.7 PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS IN A COMPOUND
• Compounds consist of combinations of

atoms. The number of atoms of each
element present is given by the formula.
• The total mass of the compound is the sum
of the masses of the atoms present.
• The percentage of each element present can
be calculated.
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4.1.7 PERCENTAGE OF ELEMENTS IN A COMPOUND
• Percentage Calculation:
CO2 consists of Carbon and Oxygen in a
ratio of 1:2. The molecular mass is
44.01 g.
% C = 12.01 g x 100% = 27.29 %
44.01 g
% O = 32.00 g x 100 % = 72.71
%
44.01 g
Total: 100%
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4.2.1 DEFINITIONOF THE MOLE
• MOLE: A measuring unit used in Chemistry
to count atoms, molecules or ions. Since
these items are individually very small in
mass, a very large number of them must be
taken together to be measured conveniently.
1 MOLE = 6.02 x 10 23
items
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4.2.2 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
• Amadeo Avogadro: The Italian Scientist who
first recognized the importance of the
relationship between mass and number.
• The mass of an element or compound can be
used to find the number of atoms or
molecules present.
• Avogadro’s Number is the number of items in
One Mole: 6.02 x 10 23
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4.2.3 MOLAR MASS DEFINITION
Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of an
element or compound.
Examples:
1 mole of N2 = 28.02 g
1 mole of Cl2 = 70.90 g
1 mole of HCl = 36.46 g
1 mole of LiOH = 23.95 g
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4.2.4 INTERCONVERTING UNITS
• MOLES
• GRAMS
• ATOMS
• MOLECULES
• ATOMIC MASS UNITS
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4.3.1 DEFINE EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Empirical Formula: A chemical formula which

gives the simplest whole number ratio of
atoms present in a compound.
Examples: NaCl Ratio 1 : 1
BeF2 Ratio 1 : 2
B I3 Ratio 1 : 3
Al2O3 Ratio 2 : 3
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4.3.2 EMPIRICAL FORMULA CALCULATIONS
Empirical Formula Calculations:

Chemical Calculations in which you must
determine the Empirical Formula or Ratio of
elements present in a compound.
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4.3.3 DEFINE MOLECULAR FORMULA
Molecular Formula: A chemical formula which
gives the exact number of atoms of each
element present in a molecule.
Examples: Compounds of N & O have different
Molecular Formulas.
Nitric Oxide NO (1:1)
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 (1:2)
Dinitrogen Tetraoxide N2O4 (1:2)
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4.3.4 MOLECULAR FORMULA CALCULATIONS
Molecular Formula Calculations:

Chemical calculations in which you must
determine the Molecular Formula of a
compound given the Empirical Formula and
additional information of masses.
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4.4.1 EXPLAIN EQUATION SYMBOLS
Chemical Equations:
Reactants appear to the LEFT of the 
Products appear to the RIGHT of the 
The  symbolizes the reaction process.
Physical States are indicated in brackets:
Solid (s) Liquid (l) Gas (g) Aqueous (aq)
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4.4.2 CONSERVATION OF MASS IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Conservation of Mass:
Total Mass Reactants = Total Mass Products
Example: A + B  C + D
12 g 30 g 15 g 27 g
42 g = 42 g
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4.4.3 BALANCING EQUATIONS
Balancing Equations: A process of writing
chemical equations so that the total number
of atoms of each type is the same on each
side of the equation.
For each element, the total # of atoms on the
Left must equal the total # of atoms on the
Right.
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4.5.1 ACTIVITY SERIES
Activity Series: A list of elements which shows
their comparative reactivity.
Examples: Halogen Activity Series
F  Cl  Br  I
Metal Activity Series
LiKCaNaMgAlZnCrFeNiSn
PbHCuHgAgPtAu
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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Composition Reactions
A + B  AB
Example
Hydrogen + Chlorine  Hydrogen Chloride
H2 (g) + Cl 2 (g)  2 HCl (g)
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Decomposition Reactions:
AB  A + B
Example:
Lithium Bromide  Lithium + Bromine
2 LiBr (s)  2 Li (s) + Br2 (g)
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Single Replacement Reactions:
Metal Activity Series
A + BC  AC + B
Example:
Lithium + Potassium Chloride 
Lithium Chloride +
Potassium
Li (s) + KCl (s)  LiCl (s) + K (s)
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Single Replacement Reactions:

Halogen Activity Series
A + BC  BA + C
Example:
Fluorine + Magnesium Chloride 
Magnesium Fluoride +
Chlorine
F2 (g) + MgCl2 (s)  MgF2 (s) +
Cl2 (g)
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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Double Replacement Reaction

AB + CD  AD + CB
Example:
Sodium Chloride + Magnesium Oxide 
Sodium Oxide + Magnesium Chloride
2NaCl (s) + MgO (s)  Na2O (s) + MgCl2
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4.5.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Hydrocarbon Combustion Reactions:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen 
Carbon Dioxide + Water
Example:
Methane + Oxygen 
Carbon Dioxide + Water
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
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4.5.3 WRITING VARIOUS TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
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4.6.1 DEFINE STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry: The study of the relative
quantities of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction.
Given a specific mass of a reactant we can
calculate the exact amount of a specific
product we can expect to produce.
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4.6.2 THEORETICAL YIELD
Theoretical Yield: The amount of product that
is produced by a chemical reaction as
predicted by the reaction’s stoichiometry.
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4.6.3 ACTUAL YIELD
Actual Yield: The measured quantity of
product obtained in a chemical reaction.
Many times, the Actual Yield of a reaction is
less than the Theoretical Yield due to factors
which do not allow the reaction to run to
completion.
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4.6.4 DETERMINING MASSES FROM CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio: The ratio of each reactant to each

product in a balanced chemical equation.
The Mole Ratio will allow us to determine the
exact number of Moles of any Reactant used
or Product formed in a reaction.
The Number of Moles can be converted to
Grams to determine the final answer in
Grams.
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4.6.5 DETERMINE VOLUMES FROM CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Mole Ratio: The Ratio of each reactant to each

product in a balanced chemical equation.
The Mole Ratio will allow us to calculate the
exact number of moles of gas reacted or
produced. Using the Molar Volume of a Gas,
the volume of gas can be calculated.
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4.6.6 PERCENTAGE YIELD CALCULATION
Percentage Yield: A comparison of Actual Yield

compared to Theoretical Yield expressed as a
percent.
Formula:
% Yield = Actual Yield X 100%
Theoretical Yield
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4.6.7 LIMITING REAGENT PROBLEMS
Limiting Reagent: The reactant that is

completely consumed during a chemical
reaction, limiting the amount of product
which can be produced.
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4.6.8 MOLARITY OF SOLUTIONS
Molarity: A unit of concentration expressed as
the number of moles of solute present in one
litre of solution.
Formula: Molarity = # Moles

Litre
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4.6.9 MOLALITY OF SOLUTIONS
Molality: A unit of concentration expressed as
the number of moles of solute present in one
Kilogram of solvent
Formula: Molality = # Moles

Kg
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4.6.10 DILUTION CALCULATIONS
Dilution: The process of adding more solvent
to a concentrated solution to reduce its
concentration.
Formula: Mi X Vi = M f x V f
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4.6.11 CALCULATE PERCENT BY MASS
Mass / Mass Percent: A unit of concentration

showing the Mass of Solute compared to the
Total Mass of Solution , expressed as a
percentage.
Formula: M/M % = Mass of Solute x 100 %
Mass of Solution
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4.6.12 CALCULATE MOLE FRACTIONS
Mole Fraction: A unit of concentration

showing the number of moles of a
component divided by the total
number of moles in the mixture.
NOTE: Mole Fraction as a concentration
unit applies only to
mixtures of gases.
Formula:
Mole Fraction (X) = Moles of Gas A
Total Moles of All Gases
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4.6.13 CALCULATIONS ON REACTIONS IN SOLUTION
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5.1 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
• All atoms (except Hydrogen) are composed

of three subatomic particles:
• - ELECTRONS
• - PROTONS
• - NEUTRONS
CH1200 UNIT 5 PART A

5.1.1 ELECTRON PROPERTIES
• Electrons are found in the regions of space
surrounding a nucleus and have the
following properties:
• Have a negative electric charge of - 1

• Have a negligible mass when compared to
the mass of a proton or neutron.
• For more information see Note Board

5.1.2 PROTON PROPERTIES
• Protons are found in the nucleus of atoms
and have the following properties:
• Have a +1 Positive Charge

• Have a relative mass of 1.0 Atomic Mass unit
(AMU)

5.1.3 NEUTRON PROPERTIES
• Neutrons are found in the nucleus of atoms
and have the following properties:
• Have a Zero Electrical charge

• Have a relative mass of 1.0 Atomic Mass unit
(AMU)

5.1.3 ATOMIC NEUTRALITY
• All atoms in their normal state are

electrically neutral - that is, they do not have
an overall electrical charge.
• This arises from the fact that atoms have the

same number of Protons (+’s) as Electrons (-
’s).

5.1 - The Atom
• Electrons are negatively charged, have

almost no mass and are found outside the
nucleus of an atom
• Protons are positively charged, have a

relative mass of 1, and are found inside the
nucleus of an atom
• Neutrons are electrically neutral (no charge),

have a relative mass of 1 and are found
inside the nucleus of an atom

5.2.1– DALTON MODEL
Atomic Theories
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory and “Billiard Ball”
Model

5.2.1 – Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model
• John Dalton viewed the atom as a solid
sphere or a billiard ball

5.2.1 – Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All elements are composed of atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible, invisible particles.
• Atoms of the same element are the same.
• Atoms of different elements are different.
• Compounds are formed by 2 or more atoms
joined together.

• Dalton’s theory correctly predicted the Law
of Multiple Proportions.
• LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS: A given

compound always has the same numbers &
types of atoms (and thus always contains
the same proportions by mass).
• H2O contain 2 H atoms and 1 Oxygen atom

and the H:O mass ratio is 1:8 (2 Hydrogens =
2.016 gm and 1 Oxygen = 16.00 gm)

• All atoms of a particular element are all the
same.
• The atoms of different Elements are made of
tiny particles called atoms.
• All atoms of a given element elements have
different masses (eg. – hydrogen has a
different mass than carbon).
• Atoms of one element can combine with atoms
of other elements to form compounds (in
small, whole number ratios such as 1:1, 1:2,
2:3 etc).
• Atoms cannot be divided, created or destroyed
in chemical reactions.

5.2.3 – Thompson Model
Atomic Theories
• Thomson’s “Raisin-Bun” Model

5.2.3 –Thomson’s Raisin Bun Model
• His model shows small negative particles of
the atom (electrons) inside a larger positive
mass. It is known as the raisin bun model or
plum pudding model or chocolate chip
cookie model
• Thomson’s model attempted to explain
positive and negative charges in the atom

5.2.4 – RUTHERFORD MODEL
Atomic Theories
• Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Rutherford “shot” +ve charged particles called
alpha () particles (helium nuclei) at thin
gold foil (element gold or Au).
• If Thomson’s model was correct, most of the
 particles should have been passed straight
through the foil.
Q: Why? (Think of Thomson’s model)
• However, some of the  particles were

reflected or scattered.
Q: What does this imply about the atom?
For more information see Note Board

For more information see Note Board

5.2.4 Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

• What Rutherford Saw

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiment
• Most  particles flew right through the gold foil

as if there was nothing there.
• Q: Why?
Atoms are mostly empty space.
• A small # of  particles were bounced back to
their source.
Q: Why?
There must be a small, dense nucleus in the
atom with a positive charge.

5.2.4 RUTHERFORD’S
MODEL
• The Nucleus of an atom is the dense central
core of an atom which contains all the
atom’s Protons and Neutrons.
• The overall charge on a nucleus is positive

due to the presence of Protons.
• The nucleus is surrounded by electrons

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s
Model
Atomic Theories
• Rutherford’s Nuclear
Model

5.2.4 – Rutherford’s Nuclear
Model
• Rutherford proposed that most of the
atom is empty space occupied by
moving electrons
• The positive charge and mass were
believed to be a small dense centre or
nucleus
• Rutherford’s model is called the Nuclear
Model because electrons revolved
around a positive nucleus

5.2.4 - The Atom
• Electrons account for little of the mass of an
atom, but effectively occupy most of the space
or volume
• Protons and neutrons occupy little of the space
or volume of an atom but account for most of
its mass.

5.2.5 ATOMIC NUMBER
• The Atomic Number of an atom is the

number of protons in an atom of that
element.
• Each atom has a unique Atomic Number
• Ex: Hydrogen has Atomic Number = 1
• Ex: Carbon has Atomic Number = 6

5.2.5 ATOMIC NUMBERS ON THE
PERIODIC TABLE
• The Atomic Number of an element can be
found on the Periodic Table of Elements.
• All the elements are arranged in order of
increasing Atomic Number.
• The Atomic Number is usually found in the
top left hand corner of the space for each
element.

5.2.6 MASS NUMBER
• Atomic Mass Number is the total of the

number of Protons and Neutrons contained
within a given nucleus.
• Ex: Hydrogen’s Atomic Mass Number = 1
since it has only 1 Proton in its nucleus.
• Ex: Carbon’s Atomic Mass Number = 12
since it has 6 Protons and 6 Neutrons in its
nucleus.

5.2.6 CALCULATIONS WITH
ATOMIC NUMBERS AND MASS
NUMBERS
• Formula to determine the Number of
Neutrons in an atom:
• # Neutrons = Atomic Mass # - Atomic #

5.2.7 Bohr’s Model
Atomic Theories
• Bohr’s Orbit Model

5.2.7 Bohr’s Orbit Model
• Bohr proposed that electrons orbited the

nucleus of the atom (same as the planets which
orbit the sun)
• In this model, electrons are assumed to orbit
the nucleus at fixed radii (orbits).

5.2.7 - Bohr’s Orbit Model
• Bohr’s model showed that electrons orbited

the nucleus of the atom

5.2.7 - Bohr’s Orbit Model
• Electrons can jump from a low-energy orbit
near the nucleus to orbits of higher energy by
absorbing energy (purple trails).
• When the electrons return to a lower energy
level (blue trails), they release the excess
energy in the form of radiation of a
characteristic wavelength, such as visible light.
• Bohr’s Model is called

the Orbit Model

5.2.8 AVERAGE ATOMIC
MASS
• Average Atomic Mass represents the mass of
an atom which takes into account the
existence of isotopes.
• Isotopes are forms of an atom which differ in
Atomic Mass and the Number of Neutrons in
the nucleus.
• The Atomic Mass reported on the Periodic
Table is an average of the mass of all
isotopes of the element.

5.2.9 CALCULATIONS OF
AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS
• Calculation of Average Atomic Mass requires
the Atomic Mass and Relative Abundance of
each isotope.
• Relative Abundance is given as the
percentage of each isotope present in a
naturally occurring sample of the element.

5.2.10 ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
• Electromagnetic Radiation is a form of
radiation which requires NO medium to
transport it.
• Examples: Radio Waves
Satellite Transmissions
X – Rays
Microwaves
Sunlight
CH 1200 UNIT 5 PART B

5.2.10 Electromagnetic
Spectrum
• The full
electromagnetic
spectrum contains
all wavelengths
and frequencies
• The visible part of
the spectrum is
shown below.

5.2.11 PROPERTIES OF WAVES
• Definition: A wave is a means by which
energy moves from place to place
• Examples: Water waves
Sound Waves
Radio Waves
Some waves require a medium to transport
them ( Water & Sound Waves)
Electromagnetic waves require no medium

5.2.11 Waves in Nature

5.2.11 Typical Wave Form

5.2.11 WAVE RELATED
CALCULATIONS
• Universal Wave Equation : This equation
applies to all forms of waves
• V = f x λ
where v = velocity
f = frequency
λ = wavelength

5.2.12 PLANCK’S QUANTUM
THEORY
• Max Planck proposed a theory that energy
emitted from an object comes in discrete
amounts called quanta
• The amount of Energy released is directly
related to the frequency of the energy
emitted. E = h x f
where E = energy
h = Planck’s Constant
f = frequency

5.2.13 PHOTOELETRIC EFFECT
• PHOTOELETRIC EFFECT: Albert Einstein
proposed that Quanta of Light called
photons striking a metal surface cause
electrons to be dislodged from atoms . These
electrons can form a tiny current.
• Examples: Photocells in calculators
Photoelectric switches

5.2.14 BOHR’S HYDROGEN ATOM
• Neils Bohr saw the Hydrogen atom as having
a series of concentric orbits around the
nucleus.
• - Each orbit was circular (Solar System)
• - Each orbit was a discrete distance from
the nucleus.
• - Electrons on each orbit acquired the
energy value associated with that orbit.

5.2.14 BOHR’S HYDROGEN
ATOM
• Electrons on a lower level could absorb
energy and move to a higher level.
• These excited electrons would quickly fall
back to their own orbit and give out energy.
• The energy given out = the energy absorbed.

5.2.14 BOHR’S HYDROGEN
ATOM
• Electrons in a Bohr
atom absorbing
and releasing
energy.

5.2.15 WAVE PROPERTIES OF AN
ELECTRON
• Bohr’s Theory did not apply to atoms more
complex than Hydrogen.
• De Broglie and Schrodinger proposed that
electrons behaved like particles and waves.
• The position of any given electron is more a
function of a mathematical probability than
a function of a given location

5.2.16 QUANTUM MECHANICAL
MODEL
• The Quantum Model of the atom is based on
Mathematical Probability Functions called
Wave Equations.
• These Equations give us the probability
of finding an electron in a particular location.

5.2.16 ELECTRON LOCATION AS A
PROBABILITY
• The location of an
electron at any
time is shown as a
probability only.
• Each dot shows a

possible location
for an electron.

5.2.16 ORBITAL SHAPES
• The first atomic

orbital is spherical
in shape and
therefore 3
dimensional.

5.2.16 Quantum Mechanical
Model
• One image of a
Quantum
Mechanical Atom is
shown below.

5.2.17 ELECTRON QUANTUM
NUMBERS
• Energy Levels are identified by Principle
Quantum Numbers or n
• First Energy Level … n = 1
• Second Energy level … n = 2
• Third Energy level … n = 3

5.2.17 QUANTUM NUMBERS
• The number of possible orbitals on each

Energy level is given by n 2
• For n = 1 n 2 = 1
• For n = 2 n2 = 4
• For n = 3 n 2 = 9
• For n = 4 n 2 = 16

5.2.17 QUANTUM NUMBES
• For n = 1 n 2 = 1
• For 1st Energy Level → one 1 s Orbital
• For n = 2 n 2 = 4
• For the 2nd Energy Level → one 2 s Orbital &
three 2 p Orbitals
• For n = 3 n 2 = 9
• For the 3rd Energy Level → one 3 s Orbital,
• three 3 p Orbitals & five 3 d Orbitals.

• As we move up
Energy Levels the
electrons move
farther from the
nucleus.
• This image shows
how the 1s orbital
compares in size to
2s.

• The 3 s orbital is
larger than 2s or
1s.

• The 1s orbital is
found inside the 2 s
orbital. Both
orbitals have the
Nucleus as their
common center.
• The atom shown at
the right is Lithium
with 3 p+ and 3 e -

5.2.18 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION OF AN ATOM
• Electronic Configuration of an atom shows
the exact number of electrons present AND
the location of each electron.
• Hydrogen H 1s1
• Helium He 1s2
• Lithium Li 1s2 2s1
• BerylliumBe 1s2 2s2

5.2.18 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• After filling 1s and

2s we move to fill
the p orbitals on
the second Energy
Level.
• The p orbitals are

mutually
perpendicular on
the x, y & z axis.
5.2.18 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
• Filling Sets of P Orbitals
A set of p Orbitals must be EACH Half-Filled
before any one of them is Completely Filled.
Boron B 1s2 2s 2 2 px1
Carbon C 1s 2 2s 2 2px1 2py1
Nitrogen N 1s 2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Oxygen O 1s 2 2s 2 2px2 2p y1 2pz1

5.2.19 DRAW ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
• After filling the 2 p

orbitals we must
start on the 3s ,
3p and 3d orbitals.
• The shapes of the
3d orbitals are
shown here.

5.2.20 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION AND THE
PERIODIC TABLE
• The elements on the Periodic Table are
arranged according to increasing Atomic
Number.
• Each element has one more electron than
the element preceding it.
• The Atomic Orbitals must be filled in
sequence: 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p etc.

5.2.20 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
• The orbitals being
filled for the first
20 elements are
shown here.

5.2.20 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION AND THE
PERIODIC TABLE

6.0 THE PERIODIC TABLE
• What is the periodic table ?
• What information is obtained from the table ?
• How can elemental properties be predicted based on the
periodic table ?
CH 1200 UNIT 6 PERIODIC TABLECollege of the North Atlantic Qatar

Dimitri Mendeleev(1869)
Dmitri Mendelev, a Russian

chemist, teacher and writer
is considered to be the
father of the modern
periodic table of the
elements
http://www.chem.msu.su/eng/misc/mendeleev/welcome.html
6.0 The Periodic Table

6.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic Law : When elements are arranged

according to Atomic Number, similar
physical and chemical properties recur in a
periodic fashion.
Period: A period consists of any horizontal row

of the periodic table. At present there are 7
periods on the Periodic Table.
Group (Family): A group consists of any

vertical column of the Periodic Table. The
more important Families have special names.

6.1.2 PERIODS ON THE PERIODIC TABLE
• There are 7 periods on the P.T.

• Each horizontal row represents a period.
• The first element of any period is a metallic
element
• The last element of any period is a Noble gas
element.
• As we move across each period, the
characteristics change gradually from
metallic to non-metallic.

6.1.2 – Periods or Rows
Periods: Are horizontal rows across the periodic
table (rows 1-7).
They have similar properties and generally show
trends.
1 18
IA VIIIA
1
2
IIA
2nd Period 13
IIIA
14
IVA
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
5
6th Period
6

6.1.3 FAMILIES ON THE PERIODIC TABLE
• There are 8 important families on the P.T.

• Each family can be identified by the Number
at the top of the family column: IA , IIA ect.
Ex: Group IIA is the Alkaline Earth Family
Group VIIA are the Halogens
Group VIII8 are the Noble Gases
• Each family can be identified by any of the

numbers from 1 – 18 which are shown at the
top of each family.
Ex: Group 15 is the Nitrogen Family
Group 16 is the Oxygen Family.

6.1.3 Families and Groups
The groups shown below share similar properties

6.1.3 - Families or Groups
Families: Are vertical columns down the periodic
table (columns or group, 1- 18) and generally
show trends.
These elements have the same number of
electrons in the outer most shells, the valence
1
IA
shell. 18
VIIIA
1
2
IIA
Alkali Family: 13
IIIA
14
IVA
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
1 e- in the valence shell
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
4
Halogen Family:
5
7 e- in the valence
6
shell

6.2 - Trends in Periodic Table
The elements of the periodic
table are arranged in a pattern.
These patterns show trends in
properties such as:
• Atomic Radius
• Ionic Radius
• Ionization Energy
• Electron Affinity
• Electronegativity

6.2.1 - Trend in Atomic Radius
• Note the trend in atomic radius shown
below
• The atomic radius increases down the
group and also increases from right to left
across a period

6.2.1 - Trend in Atomic Radius
•Atomic Radius increases down each group
•Atomic Radius increases from right to left across
period

6.2.1 Trends in Atomic Radius

6.2.1 Trends in Atomic Radius

6.2.2 IONIC RADIUS
• Ionic Radius is defined as the radius of an

ion.
• Cation Formation usually produces an ion

which is smaller than the original atom.
• Anion formation usually produces an ion

which is larger than the original atom.

6.2.3 Atomic Radius vs Ionic Radius

6.2.3 -Comparing Trends in P. T.
• Moving Left --> Right

• Atomic Radius Decreases
• Ionization Energy Increases
• Electronegativity Increases
• Moving Top --> Bottom

• Atomic Radius Increases
• Ionization Energy Decreases
• Electronegativity Decreases
6.2.4 -Trend in Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy (IE): the quantity of

energy required to remove an electron from
an atom.
The energy required to remove the valence
electron (outer electron) from an atom. IE is
largest toward top left corner of periodic table
since these atoms hold on to their valence e- the
tightest.
6.2.4 INOIZATION ENERGY VALUES

6.2.4 - Trend in Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy increases from left to right
and from bottom to top of the periodic table

6.2.5 Electron Affinity
• Electron Affinity is defined as the energy

change that occurs when an electron is
added to an atom to form an anion.
• An anion is a negative ion.
• Electron Affinity values are usually negative
since most atoms release energy when they
accept an electron.

6.2.5 Trends in Electron Affinities
• Metals on the left of the P.T. tend to have

low Electron Affinities since they are usually
want to lose an electron rather than gain
one.
• Non-Metals on the right of the P.T. tend to

have high Electron Affinities since they
usually want to gain an electron to complete
their valence energy level.

6.2.6 - Trend in Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to

gain or attract electrons from another atom
• The +ve protons in the nucleus of one atom
attract the –ve electrons from another atom
• As the # of protons in the nucleus , the
electronegativity 
• Therefore, electronegativity across the period
• The most electronegative element is Fluorine
• Electronegativity decreases down a group
because the electrons are further from the
nucleus (larger atomic radius) so the nuclear
charge (positive charge of nucleus) is less
• The least electronegative element is Francium

6.2.6 - Trend in Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to

gain electrons (attract or add electrons)

Summary of Trends
1. Atomic Radius: Largest toward bottom left corner of P.T.
1.
Summary of Trends
Ionization Energy greatest towards Top Right of P.T.
1.
Summary of Trends
1. Atomic Radius: Largest toward bottom right corner of P.T.
2. Ionization Energy: Greatest toward top left of P. T.
3. Electron Affinity: Greatest toward top Right of P. T.
1.
Summary of Periodic Table
• Periodic Table: Map of the Building block of matter
• Type: Metal, Metalloid, Nonmetal and Noble Gases
• Groupings: Representative or Main, Transition and
Lanthanide/Actanides
• Family: Elements in the same column have similar
chemical properties because of similar valence
electrons (outer electrons)
• Alkali, Alkaline Earth Metals, Halogens, Noble gases
• Period: Elements in the same row show trends across
the period due to increasing atomic # (increasing
nuclear charge) across the period
College of the North Atlantic Qatar

7.4.1 VSEPR THEORY
• V = VALENCE
• S = SHELL
• E = ELECTRON
• P = PAIR
• R = REPULSION

7.4.1 ELECTRON PAIRS
• Atomic Orbitals may be filled with 2
electrons. Whenever two electrons occupy
an orbital they are called an electron pair.
• Examples: He (1s2 ) has 2 e- in the 1s
orbital. These two electrons form an
electron pair.

7.4.1 TYPES OF ELECTRON PAIRS
• Bonding Pair: A pair of electrons ( one from
each atom) used to create a bond between
the two atoms.
• Example: H : H The two electrons
bonding the Hydrogen atoms together in a
H2 molecule are a bonding pair.

• Non-Bonding Pair (Lone): A pair of electrons
occupying the same atomic orbital which are
not involved in bonding one atom to another.
• Example: N 1s2 2s2 2p3 has 2 electrons in
the 2s orbital which are not involved with
bonding the Nitrogen atom to other atoms.

• Non – Bonding (Lone) Pair in Ammonia NH3
¨ ¨
H :N:H H-N- H
¨ l
H H

7.4.1 Types of Electron Pairs

7.4.1 VSEPR THEORY
• VSEPR Theory suggests that the structure
around a given atom in a molecule is
determined by a tendency to minimize
electron-pair repulsions.
• All electrons are negative and repel each
other. Pairs of electrons also repel each
other.

7.4.2 MOLECULAR SHAPES
• The 3 dimensional shape of a
molecule in space is determined by
the repulsions between electron pairs.
• Many molecules have a “central atom”
around which the other atoms are
arranged in space.
• The central atom is usually the atom
which can make the highest number
of bonds.

7.4.2 CENTRAL ATOM
• Carbon is the
central atom in the
molecule methane
CH4
• Carbon is grey and

makes 4 bonds.
• Hydrogen is green
and makes 1 bond

7.4.2 CENTRAL ATOM
• Beryllium is the
central atom in the
Beryllium Bromide
molecule.
• Beryllium is Grey and

makes 2 bonds.
• Bromine is Red and

makes 1 bond

7.4.2 CENTRAL ATOM
• Boron is the central

atom in boron
trifluoride BF3
• Boron is orange
and makes 3 bonds
• Fluorine is green
and makes 1 bond

• Molecular Shapes are predictable if we know
how many bonds the central atom can
possibly make.
• The central atom has 360o of 3D space
around it. The non-central atoms will spread
out as much as possible in this 3D space.

• NOTE The shapes to be described on the
following slides apply to central atoms
around which there are only Bonding Pairs.
• The expected shape will change slightly if
there are one or more non-bonding (lone)
pairs around the central atom.

7.4.2 ONE BOND = LINEAR
• When two atoms

share one bonding
pair of electrons, the
only possible
molecular shape is
linear
Example: H2
H:H
H - H
Separation 180 o

7.4.2 TWO BONDS = LINEAR
• When the central

atom makes two
bonds the best
possible molecular
shape is linear.
• The bonds are 180o
apart.
• Example: BeH2
H : Be : H
H – Be - H

7.4.2 THREE BONDS = TRIGONAL
PLANAR ( TRIANGULAR)

atom makes three
bonds the best
possible molecular
shape is trigonal
planar (triangular)
• Example: AlCl3
The angle between the
Cl atoms is 120o
or 360o ÷ 3
7.4.2 Four Bonds = Tetrahedral

atom makes four
bonds, the best
possible shape is
tetrahedral.
• Example: CH4
The angle between the
Hydrogen atoms is
109.5o

7.4.3 Structural Geometries
• The presence of one or more non-bonding
(lone) pairs around a central atom can
change the shape of the molecule slightly.
• Non-Bonding (Lone) pairs of electrons tend
to be closer to the nucleus than bonding
pairs.

7.4.3 STRUCTURAL PAIR GEOMETRIES
• N has 3 bonding pairs and 1 non-bonding
(lone) pair of electrons.
• The NH3 molecule should be tetrahedral
(109 o) but the presence of the non-bonding
(lone) pair reduces this to 107 o.
• NH3 has a trigonal pyramid shape.

7.4.3 Structural Pair Geometries

7.4.3 STRUCTURAL PAIR GEOMETRIES
• O has 2 bonding pairs

and 2 non-bonding
(lone) pair of
electrons.
• The H2O molecule

should be tetrahedral
(109.5 o) but the
presence of the 2
non-bonding (lone)
pair reduces this to
104.5 o.
• This shape is often
called “bent” or “v-
shaped”.
7.4.4 STRUCTURAL VS MOLECULAR
• Text Reference GEOMETRIES
• Table 7.4 Page 268 – 269
• This table gives the expected molecular
geometries if there are no non-bonding (lone)
pairs.
• Also, the changes expected in shape with 1, 2, or 3
non-bonding (lone) pairs.

7.4.5 BONDING CONCEPTS
• Text Reference
• Chapter 10 in McMurry & Fay
• 10.1 Polar Covalent Bonds
• 10.2 Intermolecular Forces
Please refer to pp 381 – 390 for additional
information on Bonding Concepts and
Intermolecular Forces.

7.4.5 MOLECULAR POLARITY
• Non-Polar Molecules : Molecules in which
the distribution of electron density is the
same all around the molecule.
• Non-Polar molecules result when identical
atoms or atoms with similar
electronegativity are involved.

• Polar Molecules : Molecules in which the
distribution of electron density is NOT the
same all around the molecule.
• Polar molecules result when atoms with very
different electronegativities are involved.

• Polar Molecules can also result from a
distortion of the molecular shape due to the
presence of non-bonding (lone) pairs around
the central atom.

7.4.5 POLARITY OF MOLECULES
• Bond Dipole : A bond dipole is an arrow used
in a structural diagram to show the uneven
distribution of electron density between two
bonded atoms.

• Molecular Dipole : A molecular dipole is an
arrow used in a structural diagram to show
the uneven distribution of electron density
across the entire molecule.

• Molecular Dipole
For Water

• Bond Dipoles vs Molecular Dipoles
A molecule may have more than one dipole.
If they are equal and opposite they cancel
and the molecule will NOT have a molecular
dipole.
Examples: CCl4
CO2 O=C=O

• Bond Dipoles vs Molecular Dipoles
A molecule may have more than one dipole.
If they are unequal and not opposite they
will NOT cancel and the molecule will have a
molecular dipole.
Examples: NH3 Trigonal Pyramid
H2O V- Shaped / Bent

7.5.1 INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
• Intramolecular Forces: Those forces within
an individual molecule which holds the
atoms of the molecule together.
• The forces of attraction produced by the
sharing of electrons in Bonding Pairs.

7.5.1 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• Intermolecular Forces: Those forces of
attraction between molecules in a substance
which holds the molecules together as a
solid, liquid or gas.
• Intermolecular forces are strongest in solids,
weaker in liquids and almost non-existent in
gases.

7.5.1 INTER/INTRAMOLECULAR
FORCES

7.5.1 VAN de WAALS FORCES
• Van der Waals Forces: The term describing
all types of intermolecular forces.
• London Dispersion Forces
• Dipole – Dipole Forces
• Hydrogen Bonding
• Ion – Dipole Forces

7.5.2 DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE
• Dipole – Dipole Force: A force of attraction or
repulsion between polar molecules.
• Opposite poles will attract.
• Similar poles will repel.

7.5.2 DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE

7.5.4 INSTANTANEOUSLY
• INDUCED DIPOLE
Instantaneously InducedINTERACTION
Dipoles
In some larger symmetrical molecules with
many electrons the distribution of charge
may be unsymmetrical at any given instant.
This results in the formation of a temporary
dipole within the molecule. This can affect
nearby molecules.

7.5.4 INSTANTANEOUSLY
INDUCED DIPOLE INTERACTION

7.5.4 LONDON DISPERSION
FORCES
• London Dispersion Forces: Attractive
forces which exist between all
molecules due to the presence of
electrons.
• LDF are very weak attractions
compared to ionic or covalent bonds.
• LDF are directly related to the number
of electrons present in the molecules.
• More compact molecules have lower
LDF than larger, spread out molecules.

7.5.5 ION - ION FORCE
• Ion – Ion Force:

The type of
attraction which
exists within ionic
crystals where
oppositely charged
ions attract.

7.5.6 ION – DIPOLE FORCE
• Ion – Dipole Force: A force of attraction
between a charged ion and the partial
charges on a polar molecule.
• Example: When NaCl dissolves in water the
positive and negative ions formed are
attracted to the polar water molecules.

7.5.7 HYDROGEN BONDING
• Hydrogen Bonding: A type of bonding
which arises whenever Hydrogen
bonds with a highly-electronegative
atom. ( Fluorine / Oxygen / Nitrogen)
• The H – F , H – O and H – N bonds
tend to be very polar bonds. The H
electron spends most of its time close
to
the electronegative atom.

7.5.7. HYDROGEN BONDING

•
7.5.8 METALLIC BONDING
Metallic Bonding: A type of bonding which
exists in solid metals in which electrons are
free to move along the surface of the metal.
• Metallic crystals are 3D arrays of metal
cations immersed in a sea of delocalized
electrons.

7.5.8 METALLIC BONDING
Metallic Bonding accounts for many of
the properties of metals.
Examples:
High conductivity of heat and
electricity
Ductility & Malleability

7.5.8 NETWORK COVALENT BONDING
• Network Covalent Bonds: A special type of
covalent bond which results in very high
melting point solids which are extremely
hard.
• Examples: Diamond
Silicon Dioxide SiO2

8.1.1 DEFINE AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Aqueous Solution: Any solution in which the
solute is dissolved in the solvent water.
8.1.2 DEFINE NON-AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
• Non-Aqueous Solutions: Solutions in which
the solute is dissolved in a solvent OTHER
THAN water.
8.1.3 LIST TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BY
PHYSICAL
• Gaseous Solutions: Mixtures STATES
of gases.
• Example: The atmosphere is a mixture of

Nitrogen, Oxygen , Carbon Dioxide and other
trace gases.
PHYSICAL
• Liquid Solutions: Mixtures STATES
of liquids.
• Example: Gasoline is usually a mixture of

different hydrocarbon liquids
PHYSICAL
• Solid Solutions: Mixtures of solids.STATES
• Example: Metal alloys are mixtures of solid

metals. Individual metals are melted and
then poured into one mold to produce an
alloy.
Examples of Alloys: PHYSICAL STATES
• Brass is a mixture of Cu and Zn

• Bronze is a mixture of Cu & Sn
• Monel is a mixture of Cu & Ni
8.2.1 DESCRIBE HYDRATION
PROCESS
• Hydration: The process by which a solute
(solid. liquid or gas) is dissolved by water.
8.3.1 DEFINE ARRHENIUS ACID
• Arrhenius Acid: Any substance which
dissolves in water and dissociates to produce
H+ (aq) ions.
Examples:
HCl (g)  H+ (aq) + Cl – (aq)
HNO3 (aq)  H + (aq) + NO3 – (aq)

8.3.2 DEFINE BRONSTED-LOWRY
• Bronsted-Lowry Acid: Any substanceACID
which
can transfer a proton (H+) to another
substance.
Example:
HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq) + NO2- (aq)
8.3.3 DEFINE ARRHENIUS BASE
• Arrhenius Base: Any substance which
dissolves in water and dissociates to produce
OH- (aq) ions.
Examples:
NaOH (S)  Na+ (aq) + OH – (aq)
KOH (s)  K + (aq) + OH – (aq)

8.3.4 DEFINE BRONSTED-LOWRY
BASE
• Bronsted-Lowry Base: Any substance which
can accept a proton (H+) from another
substance.
Example:
HS- (aq) + HF (aq)  F- (aq) + H2S (aq)
8.3.5 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Acids …
- Solids, Liquids or gases as pure substances
at room temp.
- Soluble in water
- Taste sour
- Form conducting solutions
- Turn Blue Litmus to Red
8.3.5 PROPERTIES OF BASES
Bases …
- Solids at room temperature
- Soluble in water
- Taste bitter
- Form conducting solutions
- Turn Red Litmus to Blue.

8.3.6 PROCESS OF IONIZATION
Ionization: The process by which neutral
atoms lose or gain one or more electrons to
form ions.
Examples:
Na  Na + + 1 e –
F + 1e-  F-
8.3.6 PROCESS OF DISSOCIATION
Dissociation: The process by which a molecule
dissociates into positive and negative ions.
Examples:
CaCl2 (s)  Ca 2+ (aq) + 2 Cl – (aq)
Ba(OH)2 (s)  Ba 2+ (aq) + 2 OH – (aq)

8.3.7 DEFINE ELECTYROLYTE
Electrolyte: Any substance which dissolves in
water and produces a solution which
conducts electricity. Electrolytes provide
mobile aqueous ions in solution which
conduct current.
8.3.7 DEFINE NON-ELECTROLYTE
Non-Electrolyte: Any substance which
dissolves in water and forms a solution
which does NOT conduct electricity.
Molecular compounds are typical non-
electrolytes since they do not form ions in
solution.
8.3.8 DEFINE AMPHIPROTIC
Amphoteric: A term which describes any
substance which can behave like a B-L Acid
or a B-L base.
Molecules or Anions with available Hydrogen

may be amphoteric.
8.3.8 Amphoteric Examples
Hydrogen Carbonate Ion HCO3-
Acting as a B-L Acid:

HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq)  CO32-(aq) + H2O (l)
Acting as a B-L Base:

HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)  H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
8.3.9 DEFINE POLYPROTIC ACID
Polyprotic Acid: Any acid which has more than
one Hydrogen atom that dissociates.
Examples:
H2SO4 (aq) yields 2 H+ ions
H3PO4 (aq) yields 3 H+ ions
8.3.10 DEFINE NEUTRALIZATION
REACTION
Neutralization Reaction: A reaction between
an acid and a base which produces water
and a salt.
Example:
HCl (aq)+ NaOH (aq)  HOH (l)+ NaCl (aq)
8.3.11 FORMULAS OF COMMON
Common Mineral Acids ACIDS
Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq)
Nitric Acid HNO3 (aq)
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 (aq)
8.3.11 FORMULAS OF COMMON
Common Bases: BASES
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Lithium Hydroxide LiOH
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Strontium Hydroxide Sr(OH)2

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CH1200 UNIT 1

CH1200 UNIT 1.0 CHEMICAL TERMINOLOGY

1.1.1 DEFINE CHEMISTRY

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

• Significant Figures apply to the reporting of

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1. ALL NONZERO DIGITS ARE SIGNIFICANT.

2. LEADING ZEROS THAT BEGIN A MEASURE

3. CAPTIVE ZEROS BETWEEN NON-ZERO

4. TRAILING ZEROS ARE ONLY SIGNIFICANT

5. EXACT NUMBERS ARE ALWAYS

Sometimes it is necessary to Round Off

If the digit to be removed

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Ex: 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 or 6.4

Ex: 8.315 = 0.0279027 or 0.0279

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

The Metric System of Measurement uses SI

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

Most commonly used Metric Units for Mass

Unit Symbol Gram Equivalent

Kilogram Kg 1000 g = 103 g = 1Kg

Milligram mg 0.001 g = 10-3g = 1mg

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

Most Commonly used Metric Units for Length

Unit Symbol Meter Equivalent

Kilometer Km 1000 m or 103 m

Centimeter cm 0.01 m or 10-2 m

Millimeter mm 0.001 m or 10-3 m

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Most commonly used Metric Units for Volume

Unit Symbol Liter Equivalent

Liter L 1000mL = 103mL

Milliliter mL 1/1000 L = 10-3L = 1 mL

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CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

CH1200 UNIT 1College of the North Atlantic Qatar

Chemical Changes involve

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

1. All metals are solid (except for Mercury)

CH 1200 UNIT 2College of the North Atlantic Qatar

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS

1. Non-metals can be solids, liquids or

CH 1200 UNIT 2College of the North Atlantic Qatar

Metalloid: An element which has both metallic

The list of metalloids includes:

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METALLIC PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS:

NON-METALLIC PROPERTIES OF METALLOIDS:

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Symbols are used to represent Chemical

SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTS 1 - 10