Fourier’s Law

and the
Heat Equation

Chapter Two
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium

• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

 
q    k  T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).

– Fourier’s Law serves


to define the thermal conductivity of the

 
medium  k   q /  T 
 
– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).

– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T  x, y , z 
 T  T  T 
q  k i k jk k (2.3)
x y z
qx qy qz

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T  r, , z 

 T  T  T 
q    k i k jk k (2.18)
r r  z
qr q qz

• Spherical Coordinates: T  r ,  , 
 T  T  T 
q  k i k jk k (2.21)
r r  r sin  
qr q q
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates or  ,  , the temperature gradient is still

based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.
• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
qr  Ar qr  2 rLqr
or,
qr  Ar qr  2 rqr

– Sphere
qr  Ar qr  4 r 2 qr
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation

• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

  T    T    T  • T
  k   z  k z   q  c p
(2.13)
k
x  x  y  y    t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal energy Change in thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow) generation energy storage
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1   T  1   T    T  • T
 kr  k   k   q   c (2.20)
r r  r  r 2     z  z
p
 t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  • T
 kr    k    k sin    q   c (2.33)
r  r 2 sin 2      r 2 sin     
p
r 2 r  t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties

and No Generation

 2T 1 T

x 2  t

k
  thermal diffusivity of the medium
c p
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions

• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T  x, t t 0  T  x,0
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T  0, t   Ts

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

T T
k |x  0  qs |x  0  0
x x

Convection

T
k |x  0  h T  T  0, t  
x
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.

Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Conduction Analysis

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.

• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the

heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

• Applications:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Problem : Thermal Response of Plane Wall

Problem 2.46 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.

KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective

heating.
FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find
the temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t 
0), steady-state (t  ), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of
time at the two surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume
(J/m3).

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal

heat generation.

ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation
has the form,

 2T 1  T

2  t
x
Initial, t  0 : T  x,0   Ti uniform temperature


and the Boundaries: x=0  T/ x)0  0 adiabatic surface

conditions are:

 x=L  k T/ x)L = h T  L,t   T  surface convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that
the gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont.)

bg
c) The heat flux, q x x, t , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and x =
L.

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as


Ein   qconv Asdt
0

Ein  hAs 
0
 T  T  L,t dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h 
T  T  L,t  dt  J/m3 
V L 0 

 
Problem: Non-Uniform Generation due
to Radiation Absorption

Problem 2.28 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.

KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium subjected to radiative flux.

FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
bg
q x , and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Non-Uniform Generation (Cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in medium, (3)

Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be characterized by an internal
bg
volumetric heat generation term q x .
ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fourier’s law,
LdT O L A O
q x   k M
Ndx P
  k
Q Nka2M
- b
 a g
e -ax
 BP
Q
Front Surface, x=0: bg L M
q x 0   k +
A
 1 
Nka Q Na Q B
O
P 
L
A
M O
 kBP <

q x bg
L+ A e-aL  BO
L  kM P LA -aL O
Rear Surface, x=L:
Nka QM
 
Na e  kBP
Q. <

(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

F
G
d dT IJ q
  0 or q = -k
d dT F
G IJ
HK
dx dx k dx dx HK
bg L M
q x   k
N
d A
dx ka
O
P
 e-ax  B  Ae -ax .
Q
(c ) Performing an energy balance on the medium,
  E 
E in out  E g  0
Problem: Non-Uniform Generation (Cont.)

On a unit area basis

bg bg e A
j
E g   E in  E out  q x 0  q x L   1  e-aL .
a

Alternatively, evaluate E g by integration over the volume of the medium,

E g 0z bg z 0 a
L
   L q x dx = L Ae-axdx = - A e-ax  A 1  e-aL .
0 a
e j