CHAPTER 1

(INTRODUCTION, BASIC CONCEPT & DIFFENITION)

Observatories to Study Earthquakes:

There are many seismographic stations and
earthquake observatories that were established in many
parts of the world. At these stations, sensitive seismographs
operate continuously and record seismic waves that have
been generated at a distance places. There is a
worldwide and international cooperation program in
which earthquake readings could be interchange to help
pinpoint the earthquake locations.
Type of Earthquakes Waves:

Earthquake are merely shaking of the ground . The

waves that make up the earthquake are called seismic
waves. The types of waves are as follows :
1.Primary waves (p –waves) –the faster body wave that
travels like sound and can pass thru solids (rocks & soil
mass), liquid and a part of it travel as sound waves in
the air. It pushes ( compresses) and pull (dilates) the
rock. (show diagram)
2.Secondary waves (s – waves) - the slower wave that
travels thru rocks . As s-waves propagates , it shears the
rock sideways at right angle to the direction of travel.
3. Surface waves – slower than body waves and its
motion is restricted near the ground surface. It is classified
into two types.
a.Love waves - motion of love waves is similar to
secondary waves. It moves from side to side in a
horizontal plane parallel to the earth’s surface.
b.Rayleigh waves – motion of its waves is like ocean
waves. The material disturbed by a rayleigh wave
moves both vertically and horizontally in a vertical
plane pointed to the direction of the traveling waves.
Propagation of Elastic Waves:
A. Within the body of an elastic solid with density ρ , two elastic
wave can propagate :
P waves Velocity α = [(k + 0.75 μ) / ρ]^ 0.50
S waves Velocity β = [ μ / ρ]^ 0.50
where: k is the modulus of incompressibility or bulk modulus
for granite : k = 27 x 10^10 dynes per sq. cm
for water : k = 2 x 10^10 dynes per sq. cm
μ is the modulus of rigidity
for granite : μ =1.6 x 10^10 dynes per sq. cm
for water : μ =0
B. Along the free surface of an elastic solid two elastic wave can
propagate :
Rayleigh waves
Love waves( for a layered solid)
 Geological Faults:

Faults – Offsets of geological structure either

vertically or horizontally.
1.Active Faults – crustal displacement can be
expected to occur any time or there is a
history of relative movement or recorded slip.
2.Inactive Faults – The last displacement may
have taken thousand of years or million of
years ago and the rupture had been healed
by chemical processes or water movement.
Types of Fault Displacement :
a.Strike - Slip Fault - faulting causes only horizontal
displacement along the strike of the fault
b.Normal Fault - when hanging wall of the fault slip
downward below the other side
c.Reverse Fault – when the hanging wall of the fault move
upward in relation to the bottom of the wall
Types of Earthquakes :

a. Tectonic Earthquakes – these quake are

produced when rocks deep underground breaks
suddenly in response to various geological forces.
b. Volcanic Earthquakes – these quake are
produced in conjunction with volcanic activity.
c. Collapse Earthquakes – constitute a third
category and these are small quakes occurring in
regions of in underground caverns and mines. The
immediate cause of ground shaking is the collapse
of mine or cavern.
Definition of Terms:
Definition taken from NSCP 2015 chapter 2

1. Base - the level at which the earthquake motion are considered

to be imparted to the structure.
2. Base Shear – the total design lateral force or shear at the base of
the structure.
3. Bearing Wall System – a structural system without a complete
vertical load carrying space frame. Bearing walls or bracing
systems provide support for all or most gravity loads. Resistance to
lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames.
4. Braced Frame – an essentially truss system of the concentric or
eccentric that provide to resist lateral forces.
5. Building Frame System – an essentially complete space frame
that provides support for gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load
is provided by shear walls or braced frames.
6. Cantilever Column Element - is a column element in a
lateral-force-resisting system that cantilevers from a fixed base
& has a minimum moment capacity at the top, with lateral
forces applied at the top.
7. Collector – a member or element provided to transfer
lateral forces from a portion of a structure to vertical elements
of the lateral-force-resisting system.
8. Component – a part or an element of an architectural
system.
9. Concentrically Braced Frame – a brace frame in which the
members are subjected primarily to axial force.
10.Design Basis Ground Motion – is that ground motion that
has a 10% percent chance of being exceeded in 50 years as
determine by a site-specific hazard analysis.
1. Design Response Spectrum – an elastic response spectrum for 5 % equivalent
viscous damping used to represent the dynamic effects of the Design Basis
Ground Motion for the design of structure.
2. Design Seismic Force – the minimum total strength design base shear,
factored and distributed in accordance with minimum design lateral forces
and related effects.
3. Diaphragm – a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit lateral
forces to the vertical–resisting elements. The term diaphragm includes
horizontal brazing systems.
4. Diaphragm or shear wall chord – the boundary element of a diaphragm or
shear wall that is assume to take axial stresses analogous to the flange of a
beam.
5. Diaphragm Strut – the element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied load
that collects and transfers diaphragm shear to the vertical – resisting
elements or distributes loads.
6. Dual System – a combination of moment resisting frame and shear walls or
braced frames designed in accordance with the criteria of section208.4.6.4
1.Eccentrically Braced Frame (EBF) – a steel – braced
designed in conformance with Section 515.9 (Requirements
Special Concentrically Braced Frame)
2. Essential Facilities – are those structures that are necessary
for emergency operations subsequent to a natural disaster.
3.Flexible Element (or system) – one whose deformation is
under lateral load is significantly larger than the adjoining
parts or system. Limiting ratios for defining specific flexible
elements are set forth in Section 208.5.6
4.Horizontal Brazing System - a horizontal truss system that
serves the same function as a diaphragm.
5.Lateral - Force - Resisting System - that part of the structural
system designed to resist the Designed Seismic Forces.
1.Moment - Resisting Frame – a frame in which members and
joints are capable of resisting forces primarily by flexure.
2.Moment – Resisting Wall Frame (MRWF) – a masonry wall frame
especially detailed to provide ductile behavior and designed in
conformance with Section 708.2.6
3.Ordinary Braced Frame (OBF) – a steel-braced frame designed
in accordance with the provisions of Section 515.7 or 516.5 or
concrete-braced frame designed in accordance with section
421.
4. Ordinary Moment–Resisting Frame (OMRF) – a moment-resisting
frame not meeting special detailing requirements ductile
behavior.
5.Orthogonal Effects – the earthquake load effects on structural
elements common to the lateral – force resisting systems along
two orthogonal axis.
1.Over strength – a characteristic of structures where the
actual strength is larger than the design strength. The
degree of over strength is material & system dependent.
2.P∆ Effect – the secondary effect on shear, axial forces
and moments of frame members induced by the vertical
loads acting on the laterally displaced building system.
3.Shear Wall – a wall designed to resist lateral forces
parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to
as vertical diaphragm or structural wall).
4.Shear Wall - Frame Interactive System – uses
combinations of shear walls and frames designed to resist
lateral forces in proportion to their relative rigidities,
considering interaction between shear wall and frame on
all levels.
1.Soft Storey – one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70
percent of the stiffness of the storey above.
2.Space Frame – a three dimensional structural system without
bearing walls, composed of members interconnected so as to
function as a complete self-contained unit with or without the
aid of horizontal diaphragms or floor bracing system.
3.Special Concentrically Braced Frame (SCBF) – a steel–braced
frame designed in conformance with the provisions of Section
515.8
4.Special moment Resisting-Frame (SMRF) – a moment-resisting
frame specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and
comply with the requirements given in Chapter 4 or 5.
5.Special Truss Moment Frame (STMF) – a moment-resisting frame
specially detailed to provide ductile behavior and comply with
the provisions of Section 515.10
1.Story – the space between levels.
2.Storey Drift – the lateral displacement of one level relative to
the level above or below.
3.Story Drift Ratio - the story drift divided by the story height.
4.Story Shear - the summation of design lateral forces above
the story under consideration.
5. Strength - the capacity of an element or a member to resist
factored load as specified in Chapters 2,3,4,5 and 7 of NSCP.
6. Structure – an assemblage of framing members designed to
support gravity loads and resist lateral forces. Structures may
be categorized as building structures or non-building structures.
7. Subdiaphragm – a portion of a larger wood diaphragm
designed to anchor and transfer local forces to primary
diaphragm struts and the main diaphragm.
1.Vertical Load Carrying Frame – a space frame
designed to carry vertical gravity load.
2.Wall Anchorage System – the system of elements
anchoring the wall to the diaphragm those elements
within the diaphragm required to develop the
anchorage forces, including the subdiaphragms and
continuous ties, as specified in Sections 208.8.2.7 &
208.8.2.8 of Earthquake Design Manual.
3.Weak Story – one in which the story strength is less
than 80 percent of the story above. See Table 208-9.
The End……