3.

7 Diffraction
•allows RF signals to propagate to obstructed (shadowed) regions
- over the horizon (around curved surface of earth)
- behind obstructions
•received field strength rapidly decreases as receiver moves into
obstructed region
•diffraction field often has sufficient strength to produce useful signal

Segments
3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry

1
Huygen’s Principal
•all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for
producing 2nd ry wavelets
•2nd ry wavelets combine to produce new wavefront in the direction
of propagation
•diffraction arises from propagation of 2nd ry wavefront into
shadowed area
•field strength of diffracted wave in shadow region =  electric field
components of all 2nd ry wavelets in the space around the obstacle

slit knife edge

2
3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
•consider a transmitter-receiver pair in free space
•let obstruction of effective height h & width   protrude  to
page
- distance from transmitter = d1
- distance from receiver = d2
- LOS
Excess distance
Path between
Length= transmitter
difference between& receiver
direct = diffracted
path & d = d1+d2path

 = d – (d1+d2)
 d =  d1+  d2, where
 ,di = h 2 + d i2
h d
 = h + d + h + d – (d1+d2)
2
1
2 2 2
2
TX RX
d1 d2
ht hobs hr

Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry for ht = hr

3
Assume h << d1 , h << d2 and h >>  then by substitution and
Taylor
Series Approximation h 2  d + d 
  1 2
 3.54
 2  d1d 2 

Phase Difference between two paths given as

2π∆ 2π  h 2 d1 + d 2  π 2  2( d1 + d 2 )  3.55
 = = 
 
 = h  
λ λ  2 d1d 2  2  λd1d 2 


 h h’
TX
d1 
d2 RX
ht hobs
hr

Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry ht > hr 4

Equivalent Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry with hr subtracted from
all other heights 

 180-
TX
hobs -hr
ht-hr 
RX
d1 d2

when tan x  x   =  +
 h
tan  =   tan(x)
d1
x = 0.4 rad  tan(x) =
h 0.423
tan =   (0.4 rad ≈ 23o )
d2

h h  d1 + d 2 
 + = h 
 d1 d 2  d1d 2  x
5
Eqn 3.55 for  is often normalized using the dimensionless Fresnel-
Kirchoff diffraction parameter, v

2( d1 + d 2 ) 2d1d 2
v= h = α (3.56)
λd1d 2 λ ( d1 + d 2 )

when  is in units of radians  is given as

 π v2 (3.57)
= 2
from equations 3.54-3.57   , the phase difference, between LOS
& diffracted path is function of
•obstruction’s height & position
•transmitters & receivers height & position
simplify geometry by reducing all heights to minimum height
6
(1) Fresnel Zones
•used to describe diffraction loss as a function of path
difference, 
around an obstruction
•represents successive regions between transmitter and receiver
•nth region = region where path length of secondary waves is
n /2
greater than total LOS path length
•regions form a series of ellipsoids with foci at Tx & Rx

d
λ/2 + d
λ+d
at 1 GHz λ = 0.3m 1.5λ + d
7
Construct circles on the axis of Tx-Rx such that  = n /2, for given integer
n
•radii of circles depends on location of normal plane between Tx and
Rx
R
•given n, the set of points where  = n  /2 defines a family of
nλ  h 2 d1 + d 2 
ellipsoids
= = d ,d >> r
•assuming2 1 2 2 d1d 2n 
T

slice an ellipsoid with a plane  yields circle with radius rn given as

nλ d1d 2
h = rn=
d1 + d 2

then Kirchoff diffraction parameter is given as

2( d1 + d 2 ) nλd1d 2 2( d1 + d 2 )
v= h = = 2n
λd1d 2 d1 + d 2 λd1d 2

thus for given rn  v defines an ellipsoid with constant  = n /2

8
nth Fresnel Zone is volume enclosed by ellipsoid defined for n and is defined
as  relative to LOS path

( n − 1) λ ≤Δ≤
nλ
2 2

•1st Fresnel Zone is volume enclosed by ellipsoid defined for n = 1

Phase Difference,  pertaining to nth Fresnel Zone

is
(n-1) ≤  ≤
n
•contribution to the electric field at Rx from successive Fresnel Zones
tend to be in phase opposition  destructive interference
•generally must keep 1st Fresnel Zone unblocked to obtain free space
transmission conditions

9
For 1st Fresnel Zone, at a distance d1 from Tx & d2 from Rx
•diffracted wave will have a path length of d
d

Tx d1 d2 Rx

destructive interference 
• =  /2
•d = /2 + d1+d2

For 2nd Fresnel Zone

constructive interference:
•d =  + d1+d2
• = 

10
Fresnel Zones
•slice the ellipsoids with a transparent plane between transmitter
&
receiver – obtain series of concentric circles
•circles represent loci of 2nd ry waveletsthat propagate to receiver

such that total path length increases by /2 for each successive
circle
•effectively produces alternatively constructive & destructive
interference to received signal Q R
h
d
O
2
T d
1
•If an obstruction were present, it could block some of the Fresnel
zones
11
Assuming, d1 & d2 >> rn  radius of nth Fresnel Zone can be given
in terms of n, d1,d2, 
nλd1d 2
rn = (3.58)
d1 + d 2

•radii of concentric circles depends on location between Tx & Rx

- maximum radii at d1 = d2 (midpoint), becomes smaller as plane
moves towards receiver or transmitter
- shadowing is sensitive to obstruction’s position and frequency

Excess Total Path Length,  for each ray passing through nth circle

n  =n/2 Rx
1 /2
2 
3 3/2 Tx
12
(2) Diffraction Loss caused by blockage of 2nd ry (diffracted) waves
partial energy from 2nd ry waves is diffracted around an obstacle
• obstruction blocks energy from some of the Fresnel
zones
• only portion of transmitted energy reaches receiver
received energy = vector sum of contributions from all unobstructed
Fresnel zones
•depends on geometry of obstruction
•Fresnel Zones indicate phase of secondary (diffracted) E-
field
Obstacles may block transmission paths – causing diffraction loss
•construct family of ellipsoidsbetween TX & RX to represent
Fresnel zones
•join all points for which excess path delay is multiple of /2
•compare geometry of obstacle with Fresnel zones to determine
diffraction loss (or gain)
13
Diffraction Losses
Place ideal, perfectly straight screen between Tx and Rx
(i) if top of screen is well below LOS path  screen will have little effect
- the Electric field at Rx = ELOS (free space value)

(ii) as screen height increases E will vary up & down as screen blocks more
Fresnel zones below LOS path
amplitude of oscillation increases until just in line with Tx and Rx
 field strength = ½ of unobstructed field strength

Rx

Tx

14
Fresnel zones: ellipsoids with foci at transmit & receive antenna
•if obstruction does not block the volume contained within 1st
Fresnel
zone  then diffraction loss is minimal
•rule of thumb for LOS uwave:
if 55% of 1st Fresnel zone is clear  further Fresnel zone clearing
does not significantly alter diffraction loss

e.g. 2(d1 + d 2 ) 2d1d 2

v= h = α
λd1d 2 λ (d1 + d 2 )

 excess path length

TX RX  /2
h 
d1 d2 3/2

 and v are positive, thus h is positive

15
 2( d1 + d 2 ) 2d1d 2
v= h = α
λd1d 2 λ (d1 + d 2 )

d1 d2
TX RX
h = 0   and v =0

TX RX
d1 h d2


 and v are negative h is negative

16
3.7.2 Knife Edge Diffraction Model

Diffraction Losses
•estimating attenuation caused by diffraction over obstacles is
essential for predicting field strength in a given service area
•generally not possible to estimate losses precisely
•theoretical approximations typically corrected with empirical
measurements

Computing Diffraction Losses

•for simple terrain  expressions have been derived
•for complex terrain  computing diffraction losses is
complex

17
Knife-edge Model - simplest model that provides insight into order of
magnitude for diffraction loss
•useful for shadowing caused by 1 object  treat object as a knife
edge
•diffraction losses estimated using classical Fresnel solution for field
behind a knife edge
Consider receiver at R located in shadowed region (diffraction zone)
•E- field strength at R = vector sum of all fields due to 2nd ry Huygen’s
sources in the plane above the knife edge

Huygens 2nd dry

source
T h’
d1 R
d2

Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry, R located in shadowed region 18

Electric field strength, Ed of knife-edge diffracted wave is given by:

Ed = F(v) = (1 + j ) ∞ exp − jπt 2 dt

E0 2 ∫
v

 2 

(3.59)

F(v) = Complex Fresnel integral

•v = Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter
•typically evaluated using tables or graphs for given values
of v

E0 = Free Space Field Strength in the absence of both ground

reflections & knife edge diffraction

19
Gd(dB) = Diffraction Gain due to knife edge presence relative to E0

•Gd(dB) = 20 log|F(v)| (3.60)

Graphical Evaluation

5
0
-5
-10
Gd(dB)

-15
-20
-25
-30
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 v

20
 Table for Gd(dB)

Gd(dB) v
0  -1
20 log(0.5-0.62v) [-1,0]
20 log(0.5 e- 0.95 v) [0,1]
20 log(0.4-(0.1184-(0.38-0.1v)2)1/2 ) [1, 2.4]
20 log(0.225/v) > 2.4

21
e.g. Let:  = 0.333 (fc = 900MHz), d1 = 1km, d2= 1km, h = 25m
Compute Diffraction Loss at h = 25m
1. Fresnel Diffraction Parameter
2(d1 + d 2 ) 2( 2000)
v= h = 25 = 2.74
λd1d 2 6
0.333(10 )
2. diffraction loss
•from graph is Gd(dB)  -22dB
•from table Gd(dB)  20 log (0.225/2.74) = - 21.7dB

3. path length difference between LOS & diffracted rays

h 2  d1 + d 2  252  2000 
   =  6  = 0.625m
 2  d1d 2  2  10 

4. Fresnel zone at tip of obstruction (h=25)

•solve for n such that  = n /2
•n = 2· 0.625/0.333 = 3.75
•tip of the obstruction completely blocks 1st 3 Fresnel zones
22
e.g. Let:  = 0.333 (fc = 900MHz), d1 = 1km, d2= 1km, h = 25m
Compute Diffraction Loss at h = -25m
1. Fresnel Diffraction Parameter
2(d1 + d 2 ) 2( 2000)
v= h = −25 = -2.74
λd1d 2 6
0.333(10 )

2. diffraction loss from graph is Gd(dB)  1dB

3. path length difference between LOS & diffracted rays

h 2  d1 + d 2  − 252  2000 
  =   = 0.625m
 2  d1d 2  2  106 

4. Fresnel zone at tip of the obstruction (h = -25)

•solve for n such that  = n/2
•n = 2· 0.625/0.333 = 3.75
•tip of the obstruction completely blocks 1st 3 Fresnel zones
•diffraction losses are negligible since obstruction is below LOS
path 23
find diffraction loss
f = 900MHz   = 0.333m T
 = tan-1 (75-25/10000) = 0.287o R
50m 100m
 = tan-1 (75/2000) = 2.15o 25m
 = +  = 2.43o = 0.0424 10km 2km
radians 
2d1d 2
v= α T
λ (d1 + d 2 ) 
75m
25m  R
2(10000)(2000)
= 0.0424 = 4.24 10km 2km
0.333(12000)
from graph, Gd(dB) = -25.5 dB

find h if Gd(dB) = 6dB

T =0
•for G d (dB) = 6dB  v ≈ 0  h
25m  R
•then  = 0 and  = - 
•and h/2000 = 25/12000  h = 4.16m 10km 2km
24
3.7.3 Multiple Knife Edge Diffraction
•with more than one obstruction  compute total diffraction loss

(1) replace multiple obstacles with one equivalent obstacle

•use single knife edge model
•oversimplifies problem
•often produces overly optimistic estimates of received signal
strength

(2) wave theory solution for field behind 2 knife edges in series

•Extensions beyond 2 knife edges becomes formidable

•Several models simplify and estimate losses from multiple obstacles

25
3.8 Scattering

RF waves impinge on rough surface  reflected energy diffuses in

all directions
•e.g. lamp posts, trees  random multipath components
•provides additional RF energy at receiver
•actual received signal in mobile environment often stronger
than
predicted by diffraction & reflection models alone

26
Reflective Surfaces
•flat surfaces has dimensions >> 
•rough surface often induces specular reflections
•surface roughness often tested using Rayleigh fading
criterion
- define critical height for surface protuberances hc for given
incident angle  i
λ
hc = (3.62)
8 sin θi

Let h = maximum protuberance – minimum protuberance

•if h < hc  surface is considered smooth
h
•if h > hc  surface is considered rough

27
h = standard deviation of surface height about mean surface height

stone – dielectric properties

• r = 7.51
• = 0.028
• = 0.95
rough stone parameters
•h = 12.7cm
• h = 2.54

28
For h > hc  reflected E-fields can be solved for rough surfaces using
modified reflection coefficient
 rough =  s  (3.65)

(i) Ament, assume h is a Gaussian distributed random variable with a

local mean, find s as:
  π σh sin θi  2 
s exp    (3.63)
  λ  
=

(ii) Boithias modified scattering coefficient has better

correlation
with empirical data
  π σh sin θi  2    π σh sin θi  2 
 s exp − 8   I 0  8   (3.64)
  λ     l  
=
I0 is Bessel Function of 1st kind and 0 order
29
Reflection Coefficient of Rough Surfaces
(1)  polarization (vertical antenna polarization)
•ideal smooth surface
•Gaussian Rough Surface
•Gaussian Rough Surface (Bessel)
•Measured Data forstone wall h = 12.7cm,  h = 2.54
 |
|

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
angle of incidence
30
Reflection Coefficient of Rough Surfaces
(2) || polarization (horizontal antenna polarization)

•ideal smooth surface

•Gaussian Rough Surface
•Gaussian Rough Surface (Bessel)
•Measured Data forstone wall h = 12.7cm, h = 2.54

| |
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
angle of incidence
31
3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model (RCS)
•if a large distant objects causes scattering & its location is known
 accurately predict scattered signal strengths

power density of signal scattered in direction of the receiver

RCS =
power density of radio wave incident upon scattering object
•units = m2
•determine signal strength by analysis using
- geometric diffraction theory
- physical optics

32
Urban Mobile Radio
Bistatic Radar Equation used to find received power from
scattering in far field region
•describes propagation of wave traveling in free space that
impinges on distant scattering object
•wave is reradiated in direction of receiver by:

Pr(dBm) = Pt (dBm) + Gt(dBi) + 20 log( ) + RCS [dB m2]

– 30 log(4 ) -20 log dT - 20log dR

•dT = distance of transmitter from the scattering object

•dR = distance of receiver from the scattering object
•assumes object is in the far field of transmitter & receiver

33
RCS can be approximated by surface area of scattering object (m2)
measured in dB relative to 1m2 reference
•may be applied to far-field of both transmitter and receiver
•useful in predicting received power which scatters off large
objects (buildings)
•units = dB m2
•[Sei91] for medium and large buildings, 5-10km

14.1 dB  m2 < RCS < 55.7 dB  m2

34