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Thermodynamics
The study of energy transformations involving
heat, mechanical work and other aspects of energy
and how these transformations relate to the
properties of matter.
Two Main Viewpoints of Thermodynamics:
• Macroscopic – properties in bulk (volume,
pressure, etc.)
• Microscopic – in terms of the behaviors of
individual atoms and molecules.
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 Temperature

• degree of “hotness” or “coldness” of matter.

• Macroscopic viewpoint: measured using the
bulk properties of matter.
• Microscopic viewpoint: kinetic energies of
atoms/molecules.

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 Thermometers
• uses measurable properties of matter that varies with
temperature (e.g., length, electric resistance, pressure.)

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 A Recipe for Thermometers
Thermometers are valuable pieces of equipment in
households, laboratories and hospitals. Thus, you must
learn the recipe for making these tools:

1) Prepare the thermal conductors and insulators.

2) Apply the principle of thermal equilibrium and the
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.
3) Borrow the blessed temperature scales from
thermodynamics lords such as Celsius, Farenheit and
Kelvin (or you could just create your own!)
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 Insulators and Conductors
Thermometers are built using a mixture of thermal conductors
and insulators:
• A thermal insulator slows down any thermal interactions
between systems.
– An ideal thermal insulator prevents any thermal
interactions.
• A thermal conductor permits thermal interactions
between systems.

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 Thermal Equilibrium

When two objects have exactly the same

temperature, then we say that they are in
thermal equilibrium, and there will be no
more thermal interactions between them.

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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Consider 3 systems A, B and C:

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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If C is initially in thermal equilibrium with both A

and B, then A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium.

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 Thus, you actually measure the
thermometer’s own temperature after it has
reached thermal equilibrium with another
body.

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 Temperature Scales
• Celsius Temperature Scale (oC)
– invented by Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius
– widely used scale (body
temperature, weather, etc.)
– Freezing point of water: 0oC
– Boiling point of water: 100oC
– 100 degrees between freezing
and boiling points of water
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 Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit Temperature Scale (oF)
– invented by Dutch-German-Polish
physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
– primarily used in the US (Imperial
Units)
– Freezing point of water: 32oC
– Boiling point of water: 212oC
– 180 degrees between the freezing and
boiling points of water (just like
North and South poles!)
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 Temperature Scales
Steps to calibrate the thermometer:
• First, we need two measurement scales that have a
linear relationship (could be expansion of liquid
Mercury and Celsius scale, gas pressure and Kelvin
scale, etc.)
• Next, we need at least two temperature readings in
both the chosen scales. Usually, we use the freezing
point and boiling point of water.
• Finally, through your unmatched algebra skills, use the
two-point formula for solving the equation of a line
to calibrate the thermometer.
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
=
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 14
 Temperature Scales
• Example: Let’s assume you have two scales A
and B.You labelled two temperature points in
A and B as points 1 and 2. Then, their relation
is given by:

𝑻𝑨 − 𝑻𝑨𝟏 𝑻𝑨𝟏 − 𝑻𝑨𝟐

=
𝑻𝑩 − 𝑻𝑩𝟏 𝑻𝑩𝟏 − 𝑻𝑩𝟐

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The length of the column of mercury in a
thermometer is 4 cm when the thermometer is
immersed in ice water and 24 cm when the
thermometer is immersed in boiling water. What
should the temperature reading be in Celsius
when the length of the mercury is 10 cm?

ANSWER: 30oC

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 Temperature Scales
• We can also use the formula to form
conversion formulas!

𝟗
𝑻𝑭 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓
𝟓
𝑻𝑪 = (𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗

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 Temperature Scales
• Note: Temperature reading is different from
temperature interval!
• Example: 1oC refers to the temperature of an
object, while 1 Co refers to an increment in
temperature.

𝐨 𝐨
𝟏 𝐂 = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝐅

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 Kelvin Temperature Scale
• Two different thermometers (say,
liquid-in-tube and resistance-
based) calibrated to agree at
0OC and 100OC may not agree
exactly at intermediate
temperatures.
• Sometimes, we want our
thermometers to be material
independent. This is where gas-
thermometers and Lord
Kelvin’s scale come in! Lord Kelvin

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Kelvin Temperature Scale

𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
𝟏 𝐊 = 𝟏 𝐂𝐨 20
 Gas Thermometers
• When using gas thermometers, we relate the pressure
of the gas to its absolute temperature (in kelvins!!!)
𝑻𝟐 𝒑𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝒑𝟏

• We choose a reference temperature to be the triple

point of water (Ttriple = 273.16 K) so that

𝒑
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟔 𝐊
𝒑𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐞
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