Cell Division

What is Cell Division?

 Living organisms begin life as a single cell and go on to become
more complex through a combination of cell division and differentiation.
 A cell (usually referred to as a parent cell ) divides into two cells which are
called daughter cells.
 In many organisms, including humans, the nucleus of body cell contain two
sets of chromosomes and therefore two sets of genes. These cells are
therefore Diploid and are called somatic cells.
 There are two types of cell division:
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
Do you know??
Cellular division has three main functions:

(1) the reproduction of an entire unicellular organism,

(2) the growth and repair of tissues in multicellular animals,
(3) the formation of gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual
reproduction in multicellular animals.

The process of mitosis produces identical cells for the first

two functions listed above; the process of meiosis forms
gametes.
 Mitosis
Mitosis is the process of normal cell division. In mitosis, the
chromosomes are copied and then divided equally between the two new
daughter cells. So, each mitotic division produces two cells, both diploid
and each exactly the same gene as the parent cell.

 Meiosis

Some cells in the body of a multicellular eukaryotic organism are not

diploid. Gametes (e.g. sperm and eggs) contain only one copy of each
gene as they have only set of chromosomes. These cells are haploid and
are produced by a special type of cell division called Meiosis.
A male and a female gamete join together at fertilization to form a new
diploid cell called a zygote. This one cell divides by mitosis to produce a
complete new organisms.
 The Cell Nucleus
 DNA exists as chromatin in a cell
that is not actively dividing.
 When a cell is about to divide,
the chromosomes condense and
separate and appear as short dark
rod-like structures.
 Each pair of chromosomes is
known as a homologous pair.
 All diploid human cells contain
23 pairs of chromosomes and this
is often given the notation 2n= 46.
 A diploid cell as 46
chromosomes.
 A haploid cell has 23
chromosomes.
 The stages of cell cycle

A new cell has three options:

 It may remain stable, in interphase for many months or years. Brain
and other nerve cells rarely divide.
 It may undergo mitosis within a short period of time. Skin and gut
lining cells have a very rapid turnover.
 It may undergo meiosis. Specialized germinal cells in the ovary and
testes include meiosis in their life cycle and produce egg or sperm.
 Interphase
A cell that has just divided is now in interphase. Interphase has three
distinct stages: G1, S and G2.
G1 – the first growth phase

 Cells that do not divide, remain at this

point in the cell cycle. They never replicate
their DNA.
 ‘New’ cells are relatively small, with a full
sized nucleus.
 During G1, ‘Protein synthesis’ starts and
the volume of cytoplasm and the number of
organelles increase rapidly.

The S phase

Fig: Mitosis - Interphase

 DNA synthesis phase – in this phase, the
cell’s DNA replicates (Copies itself).
 When a cell enters the S phase, it can be
predicted that the cell is going to divide.
G2 – the second growth phase
The proteins necessary for the cell division are
synthesized.
  Mitosis
 Mitosis is divided into four distinct
stages:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
 The movement of chromosomes
during cell division is controlled by
microtubules, which form the
spindle.
 In a non-dividing cell, the
microtubules are found as two
bundles of fibers, the centrioles.
 During cell division, centrioles
move to opposite sides of the
nucleus, from where they form the
spindle.
Mitosis

Fig: Cell division

Fig: Different
stages of
Mitosis
1. Prophase
 Chromatin begins to condense into
chromosomes. At this stage, each chromosome
has replicated itself and now consists of two
identical chromatids. These are known as sister
chromatids. These sister chromatids are joined
by a centromere.
The sister chromatids are genetically
identical.
 As the chromosome condense, other changes
occur in the cell:
• The nucleolus begins to break down.
• The centrioles move to opposite sides of
the nucleus.
• The centrioles begin to assemble the
spindle.
• The nucleolus disappears
• The nuclear membrane begins to break Fig: Prophase
up.
From prophase onwards, most normal cell
activity such as protein synthesis and secretion
is halted until division is over.
2. Metaphase

Meta= Middle
 The beginning of metaphase is marked
by the disappearance of the nuclear
membrane, which breaks down into
separate vesicles, moves into the
surrounding cytoplasm and joins with the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 The spindle becomes fully developed
and fills the space that was occupied by the
nucleus.
 Then the chromatid pairs attach
themselves to individual spindle fibers with
the help of centromere and align
themselves on the equator of the spindle.
Fig: Metaphase
 3. Anaphase

Ana= apart
 At the start of anaphase, the
chromatids are pulled apart by
movements of the spindle fibers, so
that sister chromatids are pulled to
opposite poles. The newly separated
chromatids are now called
chromosomes and are single
structures.
 Anaphase is the most spectacular
part of mitosis.

Fig: Anaphase
 4. Telophase

Telo = final
 In telophase, the chromosomes
reach the poles of the spindle.
 at this stage, they are no longer
condensed and become indistinct
forming the familiar chromatin of
interphase.
 The nuclear membrane reforms
and the nucleolus reappears.
 transcription resumes and the
cell restarts protein synthesis and
other normal cell functions. This
makes the end of Mitosis.

Fig: Telophase
 Cytokinesis

 Splitting of the cell itself is called

cytokinesis.
 In animal cells, it takes place by
means of a constriction of the
plasma membrane which cuts
across the equator of the spindle.
 In plant cells, the golgi apparatus
produces a line of vesicles that fuse
causing the two daughter cells to
separate. Then, a new wall, called a
cell plate grows across the middle of
the cell.

Fig: Cytokinesis of a plant cell

  Meiosis
The point of meiosis:
It makes sex cells by shuffling the genes to produce haploid cells that are all
genetically different from either of the parents. Each fertilization( combination
of an egg and sperm) produces an individual that is genetically unique.

The stages of Meiosis

 The number of chromosomes is halved, the daughter cells receive only one of
each type of chromosome, instead of two.
 The daughter cells are said to be in the haploid stage.
 A normal diploid cell contains two copies of each chromosome, one from the
organism’s ‘mother’ and one from the organism’s ‘father’.
 The 23 chromosomes from the mother duplicates to produce 23 identical pairs
of chromatids.
 In the same way, 23 chromosomes from the father duplicates to produce 23
identical pairs of chromatids.
 So, just before meiosis, the cell contains 92(2x46) chromatids.
 Meiosis

Fig: An Overview of
meiosis
 The first meiotic division
Prophase I

 Can be subdivided into early, middle and late.

 Early prophase I starts when the chromosomes
condense and the nucleolus disappears.
 In mid prophase I, the homologous
chromosomes, one from each parent, pair up. Each
pair forms a bivalent. This does not happen in
mitosis.
When a chromosome pair is exactly
aligned, it is said to be at synapsis.
 In Late prophase I, recombination or crossover
takes place. One (or both) of the chromatids of the
two homologous chromosomes breaks off at certain
points and fuses with a chromatid of the other
chromosome in the bivalent, forming joints called
‘Chiasmata’. This process ensures that blocks of
genes are exchanged between maternal and
paternal chromosomes. The position of Chiasma
formation varies and this produces a large variety of
new gene combinations. Prophase I
 Maternal chromosome
Chiasmata

Chiasmata form between

homologous chromosomes
during late prophase I of Paternal chromosome Chiasmata
meiosis. At these points, parts
of maternal chromosome
separate and join with the
paternal chromosomes and
vice versa. This produces
new chromosomes that are
genetically different from each
other, and from both the
maternal and paternal
chromosomes from which
they are derived.

Fig: Crossing over and Chiasmata

Metaphase I

 Nuclear membrane disappears

Spindle fully developed.
The bivalents move to the equator of the
spindle in the same way as individual
chromosomes do during the metaphase of
mitosis.
Metaphase I

Anaphase I

 The homologous chromosomes, each

made of a pair of chromatids joined at
the centromere, move towards opposite
poles of the spindle.
 The sister chromatids no longer
remain in paralleled alignment but get
separated from one another.

Anaphase I
Down’s Syndrome
Occasionally, this phase is not
completed successfully and a pair of
chromosome fails to get separated.
The result is that both homologous
chromosomes pass into one daughter
cell, the other receiving neither. This
situation can lead to conditions such as
‘Down’s syndrome’.
If a gamete with no chromosome forms
a zygote, the embryo fails to develop.  Down’s syndrome babies
But if the gamete containing both have small mouth with normal
chromosomes is fertilized, the resulting sized tongue (making eating
baby later develop ‘Down’s Syndrome’. and speech difficulties)
 have reduced resistance to
disease and heart
abnormalities
 don’t survive longer.
 Telophase I

 The spindle disappears.

 The nuclear envelope reforms
around the two sets of chromosomes.
 Cytokinesis separates the
cytoplasm forming two daughter cells.
Telophase I
Interphase
Usually the daughter cells go
into a short resting stage
(interphase) but sometimes the
chromosomes remain
condensed and the daughter
cells go straight into prophase
of the second meiotic division.

Cytokinesis
 The second meiotic division
Prophase II
For each chromosomes, the chromatid pair attaches itself to the new
spindle, which forms a right angles (90 degree) to the first.
Metaphase II
Each chromatid pair lines up on the equator of the spindle.

Anaphase II
The chromatids are pulled apart and move to opposite poles.
Telophase II
 The spindle disappears.
 The nuclear membrane re-forms.
 Chromosomes expand and cytokinesis produces two separate
cells.
Meiosis is complete: four cells have been formed and
each cell has the haploid number of chromosomes.
 The importance of meiosis in variation
The genetic variation is produced in three ways:
1. The homologous chromosome pairs originate in different
organisms. One maternal and one paternal, so are genetically different.

2. Blocks of genes are exchanged between the chromatids of

homologous chromosomes as the Chiasmata form during prophase I.

3. Each daughter cell can receive a copy of either chromosome

from a pair and each copy may have undergone cross-over and have
different genes from the other three. This is called independent assortment.
 Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis

Criteria Mitosis Meiosis

Chromosome Homologous Homologous

behavior chromosomes are chromosomes pair,
independent forming bivalents until
anaphase I

Chromosome Daughter cells diploid Daughter cells haploid

number

Genetic identity identical daughter cells daughter cells have new

of progeny assortment of parental
chromosomes
 Essential difference between mitosis and meiosis

Figure: