PULSE CODE

MODULATION
(Part 2)
Companding is simply a system in which information is first
compressed, transmitted through a bandwidthlimited
channel, and expanded at the receiving end.

COMPANDING ITU-T G.711

COMPANDING
 It is frequently used to reduce the bandwidth requirements for
transmitting telephone quality speech, by reducing the 13-bit
codewords to 8-bit codewords.
 Two international standards for encoding signal data to 8-bit
codes are A-law and μ -law.
 Alaw is the accepted European standard, while μ-law is the
accepted standard in the United States and Japan.
THE HUMAN AUDITORY SYSTEM
 The human auditory system is believed to be a logarithmic process
in which high amplitude sounds do not require the same resolution
as low amplitude sounds.
 The human ear is more sensitive to quantization noise in small
signals than large signals.
 A-law and m-law coding apply a logarithmic quantization function
to adjust the data resolution in proportion to the level of the input
signal.
 Smaller signals are represented with greater precision – more data
bits – than larger signals.
A-LAW/ -𝜇 LAW
 µ-law has a bit less distortion for lower-amplitude signals,
whereas a-law has a greater dynamic range than µ-law.
 The biggest difference is that µ-law is used by North America
and Japan, whereas a-law is used by the rest of the world.
 It is important to note that these two companding schemes
are not compatible, and any calls between countries that use
different companding types have to convert between the two.
PIECE-WISE LINEAR
APPROXIMATION
 Rather than taking the logarithm of the linear input data directly,
which can be computationally difficult, A-law/ μ-law PCM matches
the logarithmic curve with a piece-wise linear approximation.
 Eight straight-line segments along the curve produce a close
approximation to the logarithm function.
 Each segment is known as a chord. Within each chord, the piece-
wise linear approximation is divided into equally size quantization
intervals called steps.
 The step size between adjacent codewords is doubled in each
succeeding chord.
 Also encoded is the sign bit for the original integer. The result is an
8-bit logarithmic code composed of a 1-bit sign bit, a 3-bit chord,
and a 4-bit step.
EQUATIONS
DECODING
 The encoded samples are expanded back to uniform PCM
samples using a reverse mapping process, which reproduces
the original speech signals.
 The quality of this decoded speech, as measured by the
subjective mean opinion score (MOS) graded on a scale of 0
to 5, is between 4,3 and 4,5.
 For human perception, this is almost indistinguishable from
the original speech.
PCM
ENCODING
UNIPOLAR NRZ

POLAR NRZ

UNIPOLAR RZ

BIPOLAR RZ/ AMI

SPLIT-PHASE/
MANCHESTER
 DIFFERENTIAL ENCODING
 This method is used to
encode information in
terms of signal transitions.
 A transition is used to
encode symbol zero, while
no transition is used to
designate symbol 1.
PCM has the ability to control the effects of distortion and noise
encountered during transmission.

REGENERATION
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
REGENERATIVE REPEATER
CAUSES OF ERROR IN
REGENERATION
 Unavoidable presence of noise and interference, thereby
causing bit errors in the regenerated signal.
 If the spacing between received pulses deviates from its
assigned value, a jitter is introduced into the regenerated
pulse position, thereby causing distortion.
DECODING
DECODING PROCESS
 The received signals is regenerated.
 The clean pulses are grouped into code words and mapped
back into a quantized values.
 A pulse is generated based on the weighs of the place value
in the code.
FILTERING
FILTERING
 The decoded signal is passed through a low pass
reconstruction filter
 The cut off frequency of this filter is equal to the message
bandwidth.
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN
PCM
MAJOR SOURCES OF NOISE IN PCM
 Channel Noise
 The effect of channel noise can be made practically negligible by
ensuring the use of an adequate signal-to-noise density ratio by having
the distance between repeaters as minimum as possible.

 Quantization Noise
 The effect of quantization noise can be minimize by using adequate
number of representation (quantizing) levels and the use of companding
techniques.
BIT ERRORS AND NOISE
 The main effect of noise is to introduce bit errors into the
received signals.
 The fidelity of information transmission in PCM is measured
in terms of average probability bit error rate, which is
defined as the probability that a reconstructed symbol at the
receiver differs from the transmitted binary symbol, at the
average.
 Bit Error Rate (BER) is under the assumption that all bits are
of equal importance.
 Error in the MSB is more significant that errors in the LSB.
RUGGEDNESS TO INTERFERENCE
 Another important characteristic of PCM is its ruggedness to
interference caused by crosstalk and stray impulses.
 An adequate noise margin is important for the PCM to
withstand the presence of a relatively large amounts of
interference.
ERROR THRESHOLD
 As long as the Eb/No exceeds the error threshold, channel
noise has virtually no effect on the receiver performance.
 If Eb/No goes below the error threshold, then there will be
sharp increase in the bit error rate at the receiver.
 Eb/No is the ratio of the transmitted signal energy per bit to
the noise spectral density
MATCHED FILTER AND
LTI SYSTEMS
MATCHED FILTER
 It is an ideal filter that processes a received signal to
minimize noise effects
 One must remember that filter response has direct
relationship with the shape of the input signal, hence, the
term matched is used to describe any filter used in reception
of baseband signal.
 The objective of this filter is to maximize S/N and minimize
BER
ACHIEVING THE GOAL
 First we maximize the numerator in the S/N
 Secondly, we examine the denominator (noise behaviour)
 Use the Schwarz inequality to find the optimum function for
the filter.
LINEAR TIME INVARIANT SYSTEMS
 In linear time variant systems,
𝑥 𝑡 → ℎ(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡)
 Each input pulse goes through the same transformation
regardless of time
 The collective response of many pulses spread in time is
determined by the Principle of Superposition and forms the
transformation of the signal through the LTI.
INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE
DISPERSIVE CHANNEL
 Remember that signals are normally filter transmitted signal
to limit its bandwidth so that efficient frequency sharing of
frequency resource can be achieved.
 This channel may be represented by dispersive channel
model
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡) ∗ ℎ𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑛(𝑡)
INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE
 An example of a dispersive channel is a band-limited channel
 In band-limited channel, the impulse response of the channel
hc(t) is close to an ideal low pass filter.
 again, time-limited signals are not band-limited signals, thus,
the low pass filter response of a band-limited channel
spreads out the spectrum of adjacent symbols in the
transmitted signal
 This results to the Intersymbol Interference or ISI
REMOVING THE EFFECT OF ISI
 The first method is to design band-limited transmitted pulses
that maximizes the effect of ISI. (Nyquist pulses)
 The second method is to filter the received signal to cancel
the ISI introduced by the channel impulse response, in short
equalization.
DELTA PCM
DELTA PCM
 A type of PCM where only 1-bit is encoded
 One bit encoding is made possible by having a feedback loop
on which the difference between the present bit and error
signal is computed.
 The analog signal is oversampled in order to increase
correlation between adjacent sample signals
DELTA MODULATION
DELTA MODULATION TRANSMITTER
THANK YOU AND HAVE A NICE
DAY