Human

Anatomy
Articular System
The Articular System
 Definition and structure of the joints
 Structures related to the joints (ligaments, menisci, and
bursae)
 Different types of the joints.
 Types of fibrous joints and examples

 Types of cartilaginous joints and examples

 Types of synovial joints and examples

 The role of the joints in body movements

 Stability of the joints
Q: What do you think a joint is?

A: A joint is where two bones meet.

It can be movable or fixed.

Q: Why do you think we have joints?

A: If we did not have joints we would

find simple tasks like eating very
difficult. Any movement needing
bending would be impossible!!!!
 Arthrology-
the scientific study of joints
 A joint, or articulation, is the place of contact:
 between bones,

 between bone and cartilage,

 between bones and teeth.

 Naming of Joints: Usually derived from the names of the

articulating bones
 There are 230 joints in the body
 Except the Hyoid bone all other bones form joints

 Joints can be classified;

 Functionally

 Structurally
 Arthrology-
the scientific study of joints
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together

 Make bone growth possible

 Permit skeleton to change shape during childbirth

 Enable body to move in response to skeletal muscle

contraction
 Structure determines both its mobility and its stability.
 more mobile = less stable
Structural Classification of Joints
 Structural- based on:
 the absence or presence of a space between the

articulating bones called a synovial cavity

 the type of connective tissue that binds the bones

together.
 Fibrous- there is no synovial cavity and bones are held
together by fibrous connective tissue.
 Cartilaginous- there is no synovial cavity and the bones are
held together by cartilage.
 Synovial- there is a synovial cavity and the bones are united
by a surrounding articular fibrous capsule and accessory
ligaments.
Functional Classification of Joints
 Functional- based on: the degree of movement that the joint
permits.

 Synarthrosis- immovable joints; generally found in axial

skeleton
 Amphiathrosis- slightly movable joints; generally found in
axial skeleton
 Diarthrosis- freely movable joints; generally found in the
appendicular skeleton. Joints have a joint cavity
 Synovial joints: Varied types of movement

 Classified into six groups based on structure

 Fibrous Joints
 Fibrous joints: in these joints, the bones forming the joint are
united by fibrous connective tissue.

 These joints are either immovable or permit only a slight

degree of movement.

A fibrous joint has no joint

cavity.
The fibrous joints are of
three types—
sutures,
Gomphoses, and
syndesmoses
 Fibrous joints
 Sutures- Sutures are limited to the bones of the skull and
are immovable joints. The immovable nature of sutures is
a protective adaptation. The articular surfaces are
connected by a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue
(sutural ligaments).
 Sutures are joined by interlocking finger-like processes
that add stability to the joint

In the growing children the sutural joints are slightly movable. In old
age, most of the sutures of the skull become bone leading to rigid bony
union (synostosis- joined by bone).
Therefore fractures of skull are much more common in an adult than in
a young child.
 Gomphosis- a fibrous joint in which a cone-
shaped peg fits into a socket. E.g. roots of the
teeth in the alveolar sockets of the maxilla
and mandible.
 Periodontal ligaments hold teeth in place
 Syndesmosis- (to fasten or bind by a band or
ligament)- In these joints the two adjacent
bones are further apart than in sutures and are
joined together by a ligaments or membranes.
 There is some degree of movement because
of the flexibility of ligaments.
 Examples: Inferior tibio-fibular joint;

interosseous joints between radius and

ulna -joined by interosseous membrane;
Slight movement is permitted at these
joints, e.g. supination and pronation.
 Cartilaginous Joints
 Cartilaginous joints: The cartilaginous joints
are joints in which the bones forming the joint
are united by means of either hyaline cartilage or
fibrocartilage.
 These joints are Immovable or slightly moveable

 They lack a joint cavity.

They are of Two types:

Synchondrosis - (joined by cartilage): Primary
cartilaginous joints: The bones forming the
joint are joined by a plate of hyaline cartilage;
no movement occurs at these joints.
Synchondrosis

 Examples:
 Joint between epiphysis and diaphysis of growing
long bone;
 First costo-sternal joint; where the rib joins the
sternum via the hyaline costal cartilage;
 joints between ilium, pubis and ischium before they
fuse to form hip bone.
 These joints are immovable and mostly
temporary in nature.
 Primary (epiphyseal) synchondrosis disappear
after puberty after the bones have stopped
growing, the cartilage is replaced by bone. This is
known as Synostosis.
 Symphysis:
 In these joints, the articular surfaces of bones forming the
joint are covered by thin plates of hyaline cartilage. The
bones forming the joint are connected by a disc or a pad of
Fibrocartilage
 These joints allow limited movement due to compressible
pad of fibrocartilage.
Examples:

(a) Symphysis pubis, between two pubic bones.

(b) Intervertebral discs, between bodies of adjacent vertebrae.
(c) Manubriosternal joint, between manubrium and body of
sternum.
(d) Sacrococcygeal symphysis
Secondary cartilage joints typically occur in the midline.
• All the symphyses belong to the axial skeleton except the pubic
symphysis which belongs to the appendicular skeleton.
 Synovial joints-- diarthrodial joints

 The synovial joints are the most common joints in the body and most
important clinically. They are mostly found in the appendicular
skeleton.
 The articular ends of bones forming the joint are separated by a narrow
cavity, the articular cavity (or the joint cavity), and are enclosed in a
fibrous capsule
 The joint cavity is filled with a fluid called synovial fluid.
 The synovial joints are the most freely movable joints.
 The articular cartilages of all the synovial joints in the body are thin
plates of hyaline cartilage except those of temporo-mandibular,
sterno-clavicular, and acromio-clavicular joints, which are thin
plates of fibrocartilage, therefore these joints are called atypical
synovial joints.
 Features of synovial joints

Features
Synovial fluid- produced by
synovial membrane
Articular cartilage- hyaline
Articular capsule-
Synovial membrane
Capsular ligaments-
Blood vessels-
Sensory nerves- (proprioception) transmit pain and awareness of position
Function
for joint lubrication & nutrition; also removes microbes and
cellular debris from the joint cavity
to spread out and absorb forces
to contain the joint
to produce the fluid for the joint; lines the joint surfaces
everywhere except over the articular cartilages.
to limit excessive joint motion and to reinforce joints
to provide nutrients, permit healing to occur!
 Factors affecting Joint
stability
 Articular surfaces –The shapes of the articular surfaces of
bones at a synovial joint determine the movements that
occur at the joint, and play a role in stabilizing the joint.
– Elbow, knee and hip joint shapes provide some
stability

 Ligaments – Ligaments prevent excessive or unwanted

movements and help to stabilize the joint; the greater the
number of ligaments at the joint, the greater the stability.

 Muscle tone – Muscle tone in the muscles that cross the

joint, make the synovial joint more stable. It is the most
important factor in joint stability.
 Structures Associated with the
Synovial Joint (Accessory
Structures)
 Bursae:
■ Bursae are flattened fibrous sacs lined with
synovial membrane and containing a thin
film of synovial fluid.
■ They are common in sites where ligaments, Four bursae related to the
muscles, skin, or muscle tendons overlie andfront of the knee joint.
rub against bone. They cushion and lubricate
tendons and ligaments around joints
 Tendons/(Synovial Sheaths):
■ Tendons attaches a muscle to bone
■ help stabilize joints
■ Their sheaths are elongated bursae that
wrap around tendons.
 Structures Associated with the
Synovial Joint (Accessory Structures)
 Menisci /articular discs
 The menisci are C-shaped discs of fibrocartilage
that stabilize and cushion the inner aspect of the
knee.
 acts as a shock absorber during weight-bearing
activity, such as walking/ running/ jumping.
 Fatpads
 Lying between synovial membrane and fibrous
capsule or bone
 act as packing material i.e. protective for the
joint
 fill the spaces that form when bones move and
the joint cavity changes shape
 Examples in hip, elbow and knee joints
 Types of Synovial Joints
 From least movable to most freely movable, the six types of
synovial joints, based on shape and structure are:
1. Plane (gliding) joints have flat articular surfaces and allow gliding
movements in a single plane

2. Hinge joints made of a cylindrical projection that nests in a trough-

shaped structure, and allow angular movement in a single plane
Types of Synovial Joints
3. Pivot joints allow uniaxial rotation of a bone around the long
axis

4. Condyloid (ellipsoid) joints and permit biaxial angular

movements
Types of Synovial Joints
5. Saddle joints allow more freedom of movement than condylar
joints

6. Ball-and-socket joints the most freely moving joints and allow

multiaxial movements
 Types of joint movements
Linear motion
Gliding: Two surfaces slide past one another

Angular motion
Flexion, extension, hyperextension

Abduction, adduction

Circumduction

Rotation
Left or right

Medial (internal) or lateral (external)

Pronation or supination in the bones of the forearm only-radius

and ulna
Movements of Synovial Joints
Types of joints depending on axes of movements :
Nonaxial joints: slipping/gliding movements e.g.

acromioclavicular joint
Uniaxial joints: if the bone moves in just one plane e.g. elbow

joint
Biaxial joints: if the bone moves in two planes e.g.

metacarpophalangeal joints
Multiaxial (or triaxial)joints: if the bone moves in multiple

planes e.g. shoulder joint

Skeletal muscles attach to bones at two points:
Origin: attached to the immovable bone

Insertion: attached to the movable bone.

When a muscle contracts across a joint, its insertion is pulled

toward its origin

 Types of Movement
1. Gliding movements: Simplest form of the joint
movement e.g. movement at the intercarpal
joint and the intertarsal joint

2. Circular Movements
 Circumduction: moving a limb so that it
describes a cone in the space (circum – around).
Consists of flexion, abduction, extension and
adduction in succession e.g. at shoulder joint

1. Rotation: Turning of a bone around its own

long axis e.g. at atlantoaxial joint
 Types of Movement
3. Angular movements
Flexion: decreases the angle of the joint. e.g. bending the knee or

elbow
Extension: increases the angle between the articulating bones. e.g.

straightening the knee and elbow

Hyperextension: Excessive extension beyond anatomical position

Abduction (moving away from median plane): is the movement of a

limb, hand (or fingers) away from the midline e.g. raising the arm
laterally
Adduction (moving toward median plane): is the movement of a

limb, hand (or fingers) toward the midline of the body

 Special Movements
 Dorsi-flexion: decreases the angle between the top
of the foot (dorsal surface) and the anterior surface
of the tibia
 Planter flexion: decreases the angle between the
sole of the foot (plantar surface) and the posterior
side of the tibia
 Eversion: moving the sole of foot outward
 Inversion: moving the sole of foot inward
 Opposition: touching the pad of thumb with pads
of other fingers
 Supination: moving the palm of hand and ventral
aspect of forearm upward
 Pronation: moving the palm of hand and ventral
aspect of forearm downward
Inversion
Eversion

Protraction Retraction
 Inflammatory Conditions of Joints
 Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or
friction
 Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
 Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
 Osteoarthritis: Most common chronic arthritis, probably
related to normal aging processes
 Rheumatoid arthritis: An autoimmune disease – the immune
system attacks the joints. Symptoms begin with bilateral
inflammation of certain joints. Often leads to deformities
 Gouty Arthritis: Inflammation of joints is caused by a
deposition of urate crystals from the blood. Can usually be
controlled with diet
 Age Changes in the Joints
 Joint stiffness is an early sign of aging
 Fibrous joints first to change; can strengthen
however over a lifetime
 Changes in symphysis joints of vertebral column
diminish flexibility and decrease height
 Synovial joints lose elasticity
 Disuse hampers the blood supply
 Activity and exercise can keep joints functional
longer