Fluid Flow: Part 4: The momentum

theorem and its applications

Eugene Cairncross
H Potgieter
G. Hangone

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 Newton’s second law of motion
This law states that the time rate of change of a system is
equal to the net force acting on the system and takes place
in the direction of the net force.
Welty (1) shows that this law not only applies to a system but
also applies to a control volume:

Figure 4.1
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 The rate of momentum balance:
Sum of Rate of Rate of Rate of
forces momentum momentum accumulation
acting on = out of the - into the + of momentum
a control control control within the
volume volume volume control
volume 3
1 2
.. Eqn. 4.1
The net rate of momentum efflux
(flow out) of the control volume
Equation 4.1 may be applied to the control volume in Figure 4.1.
Note that this equation (4.1) is similar to the general mass
balance equation. Each term in 4.1 (designated as 1 etc.) will
be discussed in the following slides.
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 1 Force balance on the control volume
The total force  F acting on the control volume
consists of surface forces, due to the interaction
between the fluid in the control volume and its
surroundings through direct contact (through the
surface), and
body forces resulting from the location of the
control volume in a force field.

Examples of surface forces are external pressure and

shear forces due to friction between a solid surface
and a fluid in motion.
The gravitational field and its resultant force is the
most common example of a body force.
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 2 Net momentum flux through the control volume
Rate of momentum efflux = v(v)(dA cos  ) ,
where (v)(dA cos) is the rate of mass efflux
from the control volume, through area dA.
Note v is the momentum per unit volume.
v(v)(dA cos ) = v(dA)[ v n cos  ]; ...4.2
the term [v n cos  ] is the dot product vn.
The momentum efflux, the velocity x momentum/ Sign convention
unit volume, becomes for n:
v( vn ) dA … 4.3 n is the unit
Integrating this over the entire control surface vector normal to
gives
the surface; n is
∫cs v  ( v  n ) dA … 4.4
positive if
which is the net momentum efflux from the control
volume. directed outward
from the surface.
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 The rate of momentum flow terms (2)
Equation 4.4 accounts for the rate of momentum
entering the control volume as well as that leaving.
If mass is entering the control volume, the sign of
the product v  n is negative, and the associated
momentum flux is an input. A positive sign of the
product v n is associated with a momentum efflux
(leaving) from the control surface.
The terms 2 of equation 4.1 may be written as:
Rate of momentum Rate of momentum
out of control  into control = ∫cs v(v  n )dA
volume volume

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 3 The momentum accumulation term
The rate of accumulation of linear momentum within
the control volume may be expressed as:

/ t ∫cv v  dV. … 4.5

The overall linear momentum balance for a control

volume then becomes:
 F = ∫cs v (v  n ) dA + /t ∫cv  v dV . 4.6
1 2 3
Equation 4.6 is a vector equation, known as the
momentum theorem.
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 Equation 4.1 in rectangular coordinates
In rectangular coordinates equation 4.6 can be written as:

 Fx = ∫cs vx  ( v  n ) dA + /t ∫cv  vx dV 4.7

Fy = ∫cs vy  ( v  n ) dA + /t ∫cv vy dV 4.8

Fz = ∫cs vz  ( v  n ) dA + /t ∫cv  vz dV, 4.9

where x, y and z designate the components of the respective
vectors in the x, y and z directions.
When applying any of the above equations, it must be
remembered that each term has a sign with respect to the
positively defined x, y and z directions.

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 Application 1: Steady Uniform Flow
Equations 4.6 to 4.9 can be simplified considerably if a device has
entrances and exits (say N altogether) across which the flow may
be assumed to be uniform and if the flow is steady.
N
 F =  [ vi i Ai ( vi  n ) 4.10
i =1

At an entrance v  n = v (cos p = -1); at an exit v  n = +v (cos 0=1).

For 1 entrance and 2 exit, uniform steady flow, Equation 4.10
therefore becomes:
 F = 2 A2 v2 v2  1 A1 v v1 where the exit is position 2 and
the inlet position 1.
With  A v = m, the mass flow rate, kg/s the above equation
becomes:  F = m ( v2  v1 ) 4.11
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 Momentum balance – simplified control volume

General control volume Simplified control volume

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 Application 1
Equation 4.10 therefore becomes:
 F = 2 A2 v2 v2  1 A1 v1 v1 where the exit is
position 2 and the inlet position 1.
With  A v = m , the mass flow rate, kg/s the above equation
becomes:  F = m ( v2  v1 ) 4.12
Consider the horizontal nozzle, shown in the sketch below
v2

v1

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 Application 1 (continued)
Determine the x- component of the force of the joint on
the nozzle.
The x-component of velocity: ( v1 )x = v1 and ( v2 )x = 0.
The momentum equation in the x – direction becomes:
 Fx =  ( Fx )joint + P1 A1 =  m v1 4.13
In the sketch P1 = p1

The y – component would be :

 Fy = + ( Fy )joint + P2 A2 = m v2 4.14

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 Example 4.1
Water flows through a horizontal pipe bend and exits to
the atmosphere.
See the sketch below. The flow rate is 0.01 m3/s.
Calculate the force in each of the rods holding the pipe
bend in position. Neglect body forces and viscous
effects.

P2

.01 m3/s

P1

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 Solution to Example 4.1
The control volume surrounds the bend as shown in the sketch
( right hand side ) , also shown are the forces acting on the
bend. The flexible connection is capable of resisting the
interior pressure but it transmits no axial force or moment.
The body force ( that due to gravitational force ) does not
act in the x – and y – directions but only in the z – direction.
v1= Q/A1 = 4x 0.01/ p ( 0.08 )2 = 1.99 m/s

v2 = Q/A2 = 4x 0.01/p ( 0.04 )2 = 7.96 m/s

Absolute or gauge pressures may be used in the solutions
to these problems.
P2 is thus 0 (gauge pressure) as the flow exits to atmosphere.
The energy equation has to be used to determine P1 .

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The following energy equation can be used to solve these
problems:
0 0
( Q – Ws )/m = ( v22 /2 + gz2 + P2 /  ) – ( v21 + gz1 + P1 / ) + hf

Q = heat supplied to or by the control volume

Ws = the shaft work of a pump
h = friction losses.
As the control volume does not include a heat exchanger or a
pump, the left hand side of the equation above = 0.
z1 =z2 as the bend is horizontal, therefore g(z2 – z1) =0
hf = 0 : assumed no friction losses

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The energy equation thus becomes :
v22/2 + P2 / = v21 /2 + P1 /
P1 = ( v22 / 2 – v21 /2 ) 
= ( 7.962 /2 – 1.992 / 2 ) x 1000 = 29 700 Pa
Apply equation 4.7 in the x – direction to find Rx and in the y –
direction to find Ry :
x – direction : P1 A1 – Rx = m ( v2x – v1x ) but v2x = 0
29 700 x p x ( 0.08 )2 / 4 – Rx = 0.01x1000x (  1.99 )
Rx = 169 N
Y – direction Ry = m (v2y – v1y ) but v1y = 0
Ry = 0.01x1000x7.96 = 79.6 N

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 Example 4.2
Consider the symmetrical flow of air around a cylinder shown
in the sketch below. The control volume, excluding the
cylinder, is also shown in the sketch. The velocity
distribution downstream of the cylinder is measured to be as
shown. Determine the drag force per meter of length acting
on the cylinder. air = 1.23 kg/m3 .

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It must be recognised that not all of the mass flux entering
through AB exits through CD. Some mass flux exits through
AD and BC.
For steady state conditions equation 4.5 reduces to:
Fx = ∫CS v  ( v  n )dA
 F = ∫A,CD (  u ) u dA + u∞ mAD + u∞ mBC  ∫A, AB (  u ) u dA
10
= 2 ∫ 1.23 ( 29 + y2/ 100 )2 + 2x 30 x mAD ─
1.23 x 302 x 20 0

where mBC = mAD is the mass flux crossing BC and CD with the

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compo-
nent velocity equal to 30 m/s.
Use the continuity equation to find mAD .
10
mAD + ∫  u (y) dy = 1.23 x 10x 30
0

10
mAD = 369 ─ ∫ 1.23 x ( 29 + y2 / 100 ) dy = 8.2 kg/s
0

F can now be evaluated to be =  21 170  492 + 22 140 =

480 N/m
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Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a reducing
pipe bend and its control volume as shown in the
sketch below.

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The external forces imposed on the fluid include the pressure forces
at sections 1 and 2 , the body force due to the weight of fluid in
the control volume, the forces due pressure and shear stress
exerted on the fluid by the pipe wall which are designated Bx and
By in the corresponding directions.

The momentum equations for the x – and y – directions are:

Bx + P1 A1  P2 A2 cos  = ( v2 cos  ) ( 2 v2 A2 ) + v1 (  v1 1 A1 )

By + P2 A2 sin   W = (  v2 sin  ) ( 2 v2 A2 )

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But the forces of interest are those acting on the pipe
and not those acting on the fluid. These forces are
opposite in direction to Bx and By

Rx =  v22 2 A2 cos  + v21 1 A1 + P1 A1  P2 A2 cos 

Ry = v22 2 A2 sin  + P2 A2 sin   W

The two equations above can be simplified by

replacing v1  1A1 = v2 2 A2 by m, the mass flow
rate.

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 Further questions
For questions 1 to 7, refer to the class notes
(MSWord document)

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