Broadcast Engineering

and Acoustics
Topics
• ACOUSTICS
– Sound wave
– Attributes of Sound Waves
– Velocity of Sound
– Sound levels
– Sound in Enclosed rooms
– Reverberation time
– Microphones & Baffles
Topics
• BROADCASTING
– Radio Services & Stations
– AM Broadcasting
– FM Broadcasting
– TV Broadcasting
– Digital TV
AM Broadcasting
• Introduction to AM Broadcasting
System and Standards
• AM Studio System design
• AM Transmission System Design
• AM Coverage Mapping and
Prediction
FM Broadcasting
• Introduction to FM Broadcasting
System and Standards
• FM Studio System design
• FM Transmission System Design
• FM Coverage Mapping and
Prediction
TV Broadcasting
• Introduction to TV Broadcasting
System and Standards
• RF System
• NTSC-Color TV Broadcasting
• TV Studio System Design
TV Broadcasting
• Studio Wiring Diagram
• Technical Operation Center
(TOC) System Design
• TOC Wiring Diagram
• Transmission System Design
• TV Coverage Mapping and
Prediction
SOUND WAVE
• Of all the mechanical waves
that occur in nature, the most
important in our daily lives are
longitudinal waves in a medium,
usually air , called sound waves.
• The reason is that the human
ear is tremendously sensitive
and can detect sound waves
even of very low intensity.
• Sound is a physical phenomenon
that stimulates the sense of
hearing.
• Acoustics is the science of
sound including its production,
propagation, and effects.
• Sound or a sound wave is an
alteration in pressure, stress,
particle displacement, or
particle velocity that is
propagated in elastic material.
• Sound sensation is the
sensation produced through the
ear by the above alterations.
• Sound can travel in air, through any
gas, liquid, or solid.
• The simplest sound waves are
sinusoidal waves, which have the
definite frequency, amplitude and
wavelength.
• The human ear is sensitive to waves
in the frequency range from about 20
to 20,000 Hz, called the audible
range .
• We also use the term sound for
similar waves with frequencies
above ( ultrasonic ) and below
( infrasonic ) the range of human
hearing.
 Types of Ordinary Sound
1. Speech
2. Music or Musical Tone
3. Noise
• In speech, music, and noise,
pure tones are seldom
heard.
• Musical sound is one of regular
vibration, of one or more
definite frequencies. It
contains, in addition to a
fundamental frequency, higher
tones that are harmonics of
the fundamental frequency.
• Speech contains a complex mixture
of sounds, some (but not all) of which
are in harmonic relation to one
another.
• Noise is sound of irregular vibration,
or no definite range of frequencies. It
consists of a mixture of many
different frequencies within a certain
range; it is thus comparable to white
light, which consists of a mixture of
light of all different colors.
• Different noises are distinguished by
different distributions of energy in
the various frequency range.
Attributes or Characteristics of
Sounds
1. Pitch – that attribute of
auditory sensation in terms of
which sound may be ordered
on a scale primarily related to
frequency. It is the “highness”
or “lowness” of a note or tone.
• A note of high frequency has
a high pitch, and one of low
frequency has a low pitch.
• The subjective unit for pitch is the
Mel .
• 1000 Mels is the pitch of 1000 Hz
tone at a sensation level of 40 dB.
2. Timbre – the quality of sound
related to its harmonic structure.
• Two tones produced by different
instruments might have the same
fundamental frequency (and thus
the same pitch) but sound different
because of the presence of
different amounts of various
harmonics. The difference is called
tone, color, quality or timbre .
• Pure tone is a sound composed of
only one frequency in which the
sound pressure varies sinusoidally
with time.
• Musical sounds (tones) are
composed of the fundamental
frequency and integral multiples of
fundamental frequency (harmonics).
3. Loudness or intensity – is an
observer’s auditory impression of
the strength of a sound and is
associated with the rate at which
energy is transmitted to the ear. It
depends on the amplitude of
vibration.
• The unit of loudness level of a
stendard pure test tone that is
tied to a sound pressure level of
20 microPascal at 1000 Hz is the
Phon
• The subjective unit of loudness
is the Sone

Phon = 40 + 10 log2 (Sone)

• Amplitude is the characteristic of sound
waves that we perceive as volume. The
maximum distance a wave travels from
the normal, or zero, position is the
amplitude; this distance corresponds to
the degree of motion in the air
molecules of a wave. As the degree of
motion in the molecules is increased,
they strike the ear drum with
progressively greater force. This causes
the ear to perceive a louder sound.
• A comparison of samples at low, medium,
and high amplitudes demonstrates the
change in sound caused by altering
amplitude. These three waves have the
same frequency, and so should sound the
same except for a perceptible volume
difference.
• Big amplitude will produce a “loud
sound” and a small amplitude will
produce a weak sound.
• Intensity also depends on the
distance of the source from the
observer.
• The unit of loudness level of a
standard pure test tone that is tied
to a sound pressure level of 20
microPascal at 1000Hz is the Phon.
• The subjective unit of loudness is
the Sone.
 Characteristic Sound Waves
• Each instrument produces a
characteristic vibration. The
vibrations travel through the air in
sound waves that reach our ears,
allowing us to identify the
instrument being played even when
we cannot see it.
• The four sound waves shown here
demonstrate signature waveforms
of some common instruments.
•A tuning fork makes a pure sound, vibrating
regularly in a curving waveform. A violin
generates a bright sound and a jagged waveform.
The flute produces a mellow, true sound and a
relatively curved waveform. The tuning fork,
violin, and flute were all playing the same note, so
the distance between the peaks (the high points
of the wave) is the same for each waveform. A
gong does not vibrate in a regular pattern as do
the first three instruments. Its waveform is jagged
and random, and its pitch is generally
unrecognizable.
• We perceive frequency as “higher” or
“lower” sounds. The frequency of a sound
is the number of cycles, or oscillations, a
sound wave completes in a given time.
• The frequency of a sound wave is a
measure of the number of waves
passing a given point in 1 second.
• The distance between two
successive crests of the wave is
called the wavelength .
• The product of the wavelength and
the frequency must equal the speed
of propagation of the wave , and is
the same for sounds of all
frequencies (if the sound is
propagated through the same
medium at the same temperature).
 Speed of sound in Various Bulk
Materials
Materials Speed of Sound (m/s)
Gases
Air (20C) 344
Helium (20C) 999
Hydrogen (20C) 1330
Liquids
Liquid Helium (4K) 211
Mercury (20C) 1451
Water (0C) 1402
Water (20C) 1482
Water (20C) 1543
Solids
Aluminum 6420
Lead 1960
Steel 5941
• Speed of Sound in Gases
V = ¯(RT/M)
where  = ratio of heat capacities
R = gas constant
R = 8.314 J/mol.K
T = temperature in Kelvin
M = molar mass or mass/mole of
the substance
• Example : Compute the speed of sound
waves in air at room temp. (20C) and
find the range of wavelengths in air to
which the human ear (20Hz – 20KHz) is
sensitive. The mean molar mass for air
is 28.8x10-3Kg/mol and the ratio of heat
capacities is 1.40.
Velocity of Sound
A. Velocity of Propagation (c) in a
Gas in m/s
𝑃𝑜
C=
𝑜
Where:
 = ratio of the specific heat of constant
pressure to that at constant volume
Po = the steady pressure of the gas in N/m2
o = the steady or average density of the
gas in kg/m3
Velocity of Sound

B.Velocity of Sound (c) in Dry Air

Metric System: c = 331.45  0.05 m/s
English System: c = 1087.42  0.16 ft/s

C. Velocity of Sound (c) in Air (for TC 

20C)
Metric System: c = 331.45 + 0.607TC m/s
English System: c = 1052.03 + 1.016TF ft/s
Velocity of Sound
D. Velocity of Sound (c) in Air (for
Tc > 20C)
𝑇𝐾
Metric System: c = 331.45 m/s
273

𝑇𝑅
English System: c = 1052.03 ft/s
460
where: TC = temp in degree Celsius
TF = temp in degree Fahrenheit
TK = temp in Kelvin
TR = temp in Rankine
Velocity of Sound
E. Velocity of Sound (c) in Liquid
1
c= m/s
𝐾𝑜
Compressibilit
y K= 47 𝑥 10 −8
981
where:
K = the compressibility in ms2/kg and may be
regardless as constant
• Speed of Sound in a Fluid
V = ¯(B/)
where  = density of
the medium
B = Bulk Modulus
• Example : Determine the speed of sound
waves in water and the wavelength of a
262 Hz wave.
• Speed of Sound in a Solid
V = ¯(Y/)
where  = density of
the medium
Y = Young’s Modulus
• Example : What is the speed of sound in
a lead rod? (Y=1.6x1010 Pa & =11.3x103
Kg/m3)
Sound Levels
A. Sound Power (W) & Sound Power Level
(PWL)
Sound Power – the radiated acoustic power in
a stated frequency band expressed in Watts
(W).
Sound Power Level – ten times the common
logarithm of the ratio of the sound power
to the reference sound power, Wo, (10-12 W)
expressed in decibel (dB)

𝑊
PWL = 10 log PWL = 10 log W + 120
𝑊𝑜
where: W = radiated acoustic power, W
Wo = reference sound power, 10-12 W
1. Sound Power Level (PWL) in dB
From an Isotropic Source in Free Space:
PWL = SPL + 20 log d + 11
From a Source at Ground Level:
PWL = SPL + 20 log d + 8
where: d = distance from source at which
measurement is taken in m
SPL = Sound Pressure Level in dB

2. Total Sound Power (WT) in W

From Sources with Unequal Levels:
WT = W1 + W2 + W3 + … Wn
From Sources with Equal Levels:
WT = nW
3. Total Sound Power Level
(PWLT) in dB
From Sources with Unequal Levels:
PWLT = 10 log WT + 120
From Sources with Equal Levels:
PWLT = 10 log n + PWL
B. Sound Pressure (P) and Sound Pressure
Level (SPL)
Sound Pressure – the root mean square (rms)
of the instantaneous sound pressure in a
stated frequency band and during specified
time interval, unless another time-averaging
process is indicated, expressed in N/m2 (Pa)
Sound Pressure Level – ten times the
common logarithm of the square of the ratio
of the sound pressure to the reference
sound pressure, Po, (20 Pa) expressed in
decibel (dB)
SPL = 20 log SPL = 20 log P + 94
𝑷
𝑷𝒐
where: P = rms sound pressure, Pa
Po = reference sound pressure, 20 Pa
1. Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at any unit of
pressure in dB
SPL = 20 log PN + N
where: PN = rms sound pressure expressed in any
unit of pressure
N = SPL constant corresponding to the unit
at which sound pressure is expressed

2. Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in dB

From an Isotropic Source in free space
SPL = PWL – 20 log d - 11
From a source at ground level
SPL = PWL – 20 log d – 8
 SPL Constant for any unit of pressure:
Sound Pressure Designation SPL Constant
Expressed in (N)

Microbar bar 74
Pascal Pa(N/m2) 94
lb/ft2 psf 127.6
Mm of mm Hg 136.5
mercury torr 136.5
Torr psi 170.8
lb/in2 atm 193.8
atmosphere
(technical) at 194.1
atmosphere
(standard)
3. Total Sound Pressure (PT)
From Sources with unequal level
PT = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 +𝑷𝟑 + … .𝑷𝒏
From Sources with unequal level
PT = P 𝒏

4. Total Sound Pressure Level (SPLT)

From Sources with unequal level
SPLT = 20 log PT + N
From Sources with unequal level
SPLT = 10 log n + SPL
Sound Intensity (I) & Sound Intensity
Level (SIL)
Sound Intensity – the average rate of sound
energy transmitted in a specified direction
through a unit area normal to this direction at
the point considered.
Sound Intensity Level – ten times the
common logarithm of the ratio of the sound
intensity to the reference sound intensity, Io,
(10-12 W/m2) expressed in dB.
SIL = 10 log SIL = 10 log I + 120
𝐼
𝐼𝑜
Where: I = sound intensity in W/m2
Io = reference sound intensity of 10-12 W/m2
Sound Intensity Level, SIL
Example: A 10 minute exposure to 120
dB sound will typically shift your
threshold of hearing at 1KHz from 0
dB to 28 dB for a while. Ten years
of exposure to 92 dB sound will
cause a permanent shift up to 28
dB. What intensities corresponds to
28 dB and 92 dB?
1. Sound Intensity (I) in W/m2

In any medium: In air:

𝑃2 𝑃2
I= I=
 410

where:  = density of medium in kg/m3

c = velocity of sound m/s
P = sound pressure in Pa
c = 410 rayls in air

From an isotropic From a source at

source in free space: ground level:

𝑾 𝑾
I= I=
𝟒 𝒅 𝟐
𝟐𝒅𝟐
2. Total Sound Intensity (IT) in W/m2

From Sources with From Sources with

Unequal levels Equal levels

I T = I1 + I2 + I3 + … In IT = nI

3. Total Sound Intensity Level (SILT) in Db

From Sources with From Sources with

Unequal levels Equal levels

SILT = 10 log IT + 120 SILT = 10 log n + SIL

Example: Find the intensity of
sound wave with P=3.0x10-2Pa.
Assume the temperature is 20C so
that the density of air is 1.20 kg/m3
and the speed of sound is 344 m/s.
Sound Intensity Levels from Various
Sources

Source of Sound SIL (dB) I (W/m2)

Military jet aircraft 30 m away 140 102
Threshold of pain 120 1
Riveter 95 3.2x10-3
Elevated train 90 10-3
Busy street traffic 70 10-5
Ordinary conversation 65 3.2x10-6
Quiet automobile 50 10-7
Quiet radio in home 40 10-8
Average whisper 20 10-10
Rustle of leaves 10 10-11
Threshold of hearing at 1KHz 0 10-12
 Sound in Enclosed Rooms
Room Acoustics – is concerned with the
behavior of sound within an enclosed space
with a view to obtaining the optimum effect on
the occupants.

Direct Field Sound Reverberant Field

Intensity (Id) in W/m2 Sound Intensity (Ir)
𝑊𝑄 4𝑊
Id = Ir =
4𝑑 2
𝑅
𝑆
Where: R =
1 −
W = radiated source power, W R = room constant
Q = directivity S = total surface area
d = distance from source, m of the room
 = ave. room absorption
coefficient
Total Sound Intensity (I) in W/m2

I = Id + Ir I=
𝑊𝑄
+ 4𝑊
4𝑑 2 𝑅

Sound Pressure Level (SPL)

𝑄
SPL = PWL + 10 log ( + 4) + K
4𝑑 2 𝑅
where:
K = 0.2 dB if metric units are used
K = 10.5 dB if English units are used
Echo and Reverberation
• Echo is a delayed return of sound that
is perceived by the ear as a discrete
sound image.
• An echo is a reflected sound wave.
The perceptible gap between the
emission and repeat of the sound
represents the time it takes waves to
travel to an obstacle and back.
• Reverberation is the tailing off of
sound in an enclosure because of
multiple reflections from boundaries.
• Reverberation is a succession of
echoes.
• Reverberation time is the time
required for the mean square sound
pressure of a given frequency in an
enclosure, initially in a steady state,
to decay after the source is stopped,
to 60dB or one-millionth of its initial
value.
A. Stephen & Bate Equation (for ideal
reverberation time computation) in
sec.
RT60= r (0.012 3¯V + 0.1070)
where V= volume of room, m3
r = 4 for speech, 5 for orchestra,
6 for choir
B. Sabine Equation (for actual
reverberation time w/ ave. absorption
<= 0.2) in sec.

(room in m) (room in ft)

RT60= 0.161 (V/A) RT60= 0.049 (V/A)
RT60= 0.161 (V/S) RT60= 0.049 (V/S)
where V= volume of room
A = total absorption of the room
S = total surface area of the room
 = average room absorption
coefficient.
• Absorption Coefficient is a measure of
the efficiency of a surface or material in
absorbing sound.
C. Norris-Erying Equation (for actual
reverberation time w/ ave.
absorption > 0.2) in sec.
(room in m)
RT60= 0.161 [V/-sin (1- )]
(room in ft)
RT60= 0.049 [V/-sin (1- )]
where V= volume of room
 = average room absorption
coefficient.
D. Fitzroy Equation (for non-uniform
distribution of absorption) in sec.
(room in m)
𝑉 2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥 2𝑦
+ +
−ln(1− 𝑥 )
RT60= 0.161 2
𝑆 −ln(1− 𝑥 ) −ln(1−𝑦 )
(room in ft)
𝑉 2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥𝑧 2𝑦𝑧
RT60= 0.049 2
+ +
𝑆 −ln(1− 𝑥 𝑦 ) −ln(1− 𝑥 𝑧) −ln(1− )
where: 𝑦𝑧

x & y = height & width of the room

 XY = ave. absorption coefficient at the end of the walls
x & z = height & length of the room
 XZ = ave. absorption coefficient at the side of the walls
y & z = width & length of the room
 YZ = ave. absorption coefficient of the floor & ceilling
Microphones & Baffles
Properties of Microphones
1. Electroacoustic Performance – the
ability of the microphone to perform task
for which it was designed, generally
measured in terms of its sensitivity,
directivity, frequency response, transient
response, linearity, SNR, and dynamic
range.
2. Electrical Characteristics – the output
impedance of the microphone which
determines the amplification methods that
are suitable.
Microphones & Baffles
Properties of Microphones
3. Sensitivity to External Influences –
the ability of the microphone to operate
independently of the air temperature,
relative humidity, and wind speed.
4. Cost

Classes of Microphone Applications

1. Communication Microphones – those
intended for speech communication
between a small no. of individuals.
Examples include telephone microphones
& hearing aids
 Classes of Microphone Applications
2. Sound Recording & Broadcasting
Microphones – those intended for high-
fidelity reproduction of speech and music.
3. General-purpose Microphones - those
intended for sound reinforcement
systems, public address systems, and
home use.
4. Measurement Microphones – those
intended for laboratory measurement of
acoustic pressure. These microphones
must be very accurate and highly stable.
 Types of Microphone
1. Condenser Microphones – in this type
of microphone, conversion of acoustic
energy to electrical energy occurs
because the sound pressure causes small
motions of the microphone diaphragm.
• The diaphragm serves as one plate of a
parallel-plate capacitor in which the other
plate is stationary.
• Motion of the diaphragm serves to change
the capacitance, which results in a change
in the electrical potential.
 Types of Microphone
2. Electret Microphones – these
microphones are very similar to the
condenser microphone; the main
difference is that the externally applied
bias voltage is eliminated through the use
of a polarized material referred to as an
electret .
• Electret microphones use a thin polymer
film coated on one side with metals as the
moving diaphragm.
• The film is permanently polarized at a level
comparable to that used in biasing a
conventional condenser microphone.
 Types of Microphone
3. Piezoelectric Microphones – these
microphones rely on piezoelectric
materials for the fundamentally linear
conversion of mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
• Piezoelectric materials are crystals and
ceramics that, when distorted by sound
pressure, produce voltages proportional to
their dimensional strain.
• Its main advantage is that, like the electret
microphone, it does not require the
attachment of an external power supply.
 Types of Microphone
4. Dynamic Microphones – moving-coil
electrodynamic microphones are the
sensor counterpart of conventional
electrodynamic loudspeakers.
• They are based on a fundamentally linear
transduction mechanism that involves
interaction of magnetic fields.
• In this type of microphone, a sound
pressure is incident upon a diaphragm to
which a coil is rigidly attached.
• Motion of the diaphragm results in a
motion of the coil within the magnetic
field generated by a permanent magnet.
This gives rise o a potential.
 Types of Microphone
5. Ribbon Microphones – electrodynamic
ribbon microphones are quite similar to
moving-coil electrodynamic microphones,
but the diaphragm and the coil are
replaced by a corrugated ribbon
suspended in the gap of the magnetic
circuit.
• In this type of microphone, the ribbon is
exposed to sound on both its front & back.
It responds to a difference in the sound
pressure by deforming primarily in bending.
This motion in the presence of a magnetic
field induces a potential.
 Types of Microphone
6. Carbon Microphones – it is a resistive
sensor that has been used over the years
extensively in situations where it is
acceptable to trade a high sensitivity for a
poor linearity.
• In this type of microphone, sound is
incident on a diaphragm attached to a
plunger that applies a force to carbon
granules.
• This microphone exhibit poor linearity and
poor dynamic range but are very rugged.
They are poor choice of microphone for
high-humidity environments, as the carbon
granules coalesce.
 Types of Baffles
1. Bass Reflex – a loudspeaker baffle that
has an opening dimensioned below the
loudspeaker so that the bass frequencies
from the rear emerge to reinforce those
radiated directly forward.
2. Infinite Baffle - in this type of baffle, the
wave from the back of the diaphragm is
isolated from the front wave, except that
internal reflections may bounce back
through the diaphragm or set-up
secondary vibrations of the box itself. It is
also known as closed box .
 Types of Baffles
3. Labyrinth Baffle – a baffle with two
openings at the front in which the back
pulsations are bounced back and forth
through a maze of small internal boxes.

ACOUSTICS TERMINOLOGY
Absorption Coefficient – a measure of the
efficiency of a surface or material in
absorbing sound.
Anechoic chamber – a room designed to
suppress internal sound reflections as much
as possible.
Baffle – a divider board used to separate the
sound pressure areas in order to reduce the
cancellation of sound.
Coloration of sound – the distortion of a
signal detectable by the ear.
Comb Filter Effect – a distortion produced by
combining an electrical or acoustical signal
with a delayed replica of itself.
Correlogram – a graph showing the
correlation of one signal with another
Dead Room – a room in which the floor,
ceiling, and wall are lined with a sound
absorbing material to reduce reflections of
sound to a minimum. It is also known as
anechoic room or free-field room .
Diffraction of sound – the distortion of a
wavefront caused by the presence of an
obstacle in the sound field.
Diffusor - a proprietary device for the
diffusion of sound through reflection phase-
grating means.
Dispersion – the ability of a driver to send the
sound waves out in a wide path.
Driver – a loudspeaker designed to reproduce
middle-frequency sounds.
Dynamic Range – a ratio between the sudden
drop of sound intensity from its loudest level
to its softest level.
Echo – a delayed return of sound that is
perceived by the ear as discrete sound image
Flutter echo – a repetitive echo set up by
parallel reflecting surfaces.
Haas Effect – also called Precedence Effect.
Delayed sounds are integrated by the
auditory apparatus if they fall on the ear
within 20 – 40 ms of the direct sound. The
level of the delayed components contributes
to the apparent level of the sound, and it is
accompanied by a pleasant change in
character.
Helmhotz Resonator – a reactive, tuned
sound absorber; it is an air cavity within a
massive enclosure, connecting to the
surroundings by a narrow neck opening.
Horn – a loudspeaker type that is used to
transform sound energy having a high
pressure and low velocity to sound energy
having a low pressure and high velocity.
Korner Killer - a proprietary sound-absorbing/
diffusing unit for use in corners of rooms
Law of the First Wavefront – the first
wavefront falling on the ear determines the
perceived direction of the sound.
Live end Dead end – an acoustical treatment
plan for rooms in which one end is highly
absorbent and the other end reflective and
diffusive.
Mean free path – the ave. distance traveled
between successive reflections.
Noise Criteria – a plot of frequency vs. sound
pressure level in dB on standard NC chart.
The standard NC chart was developed in an
attempt to show equally objectionable sound
pressure levels.
Octave – the interval between two
frequencies having a ratio of 2:1.
Partial – one of a group of frequencies
not necessarily harmonically-related to
the fundamental, which appears in
complex tones.
Presbycosis – the loss of hearing sensation
due to the thickening of the eardrum usually
at old age.
Psychoacoustics – the study of the interaction
of the auditory system and acoustics
Refraction of sound – the bending of sound
waves travelling through layered media with
different sound velocities.
Regenerated sound – sound generated by air
turbulence as it passes through ductwork and
air control devices. It increases with an
increase in air velocity.
Reverberation Room – a room designed to
emphasize reverberations. It is the converse of
a dead room.
Sound spectograph – is a graph wherein time is
plotted in the x-axis, frequency is plotted in
the y-axis, and the sound level is indicated
roughly by the density of the trace.
Standing Wave – a resonance condition in an
enclosed space in which sound waves
traveling in one direction interact with those
traveling in the opposite direction, resulting in
a stable condition.
Threshold of Pain - the maximum sound
pressure which the human ear understands
without discomfort of pain.
Threshold of tolerance – a range of sound
measure which the human ear can understand
without discomfort or pain or evoke an
auditory sensation.
Tinnitus – a high-pitch ringing
Tweeter – a loudspeaker designed to
reproduce high-frequency sounds
Woofer – a large loudspeaker that reproduces
low audio frequencies at relatively high power
level.
Wow - a low-frequency flutter

BROADCASTING:
- Refers to the airborne transmission of
electromagnetic audio signals (radio) or
audiovisual signals (television) that are readily
accessible to a wide population via standard
receivers.
Broadcasting:
Radio Services & Stations
TYPES OF SERVICES
1. Aeronautical Fixed Service
2. Aeronautical Mobile Service
3. Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service
4. Aeronautical Radionavigation Service
5. Aeronautical Radionavigation-Satellite
Service
6. Amateur Service
7. Amateur-Satellite Service
8. Broadcasting Service
9.Broadcasting-Satellite Service
10.Earth Exploration-Satellite Service
11.Fixed Service
12.Fixed-Satellite Service
13.Inter-Satellite Service
14.Land Mobile Service
15.Land Mobile-Satellite Service 16.Maritime
Mobile Service 17.Maritime Mobile-Satellite Service
18.Maritime Radionavigation Service
19.Maritime Radionavigation-Satellite Service
20.Meteorological Aids Service 21.Meteorological-Sate
Service
22.Mobile Service 23.Mobile-Satellite
Service 24.Port Operations Service
25.Radio Astronomy Service
26.Radiodetermination Service
27.Radionavigation Service
28.Radionavigation-Satellite Service
29.Safety Service
30.Ship Movement Service
31.Ship Operation Service
32.Space Research Service
33.Special Service
34. Standard Frequency & Time Signal Service
35. Standard Frequency & Time Signal-
Satellite Service
TYPES OF STATIONS
1.Aeronautical Station
2.Aeronautical Fixed Station
3.Aircraft Station
4.Amateur Station
5.Base Station
6.Broadcasting Station
7.Coast Station
8.Commercial Receiving Station
9.Experimental Station
10.Fixed Station
11.Land Mobile Station
12.Mobile Station
13.Mobile Portable Station
14.Portable Station
15.Radio Direction-Finding Station
16.Radio Training Station
17.Radiobeacon Station
18.Radiolocation Station
19.Radionavigation Station
20.Radionavigation Land Station
21.Ship Station
22.Standard Frequency & Time Signal Station
23.Transmitting Station
AM BROADCASTING
Bastida-Cornelio
Flores-Galagala
Garsuta-Madulin
Martizano-Orillaneda
Report Outline
 Broadcasting
 Types of Services and Stations
 History of AM Broadcasting
 How AM Broadcasting Works

 AM vs FM Broadcasting
 International Frequency Assignment
 NTC Regulations on Broadcasting
 AM Broadcasting in Davao City
BROADCASTING
• Broadcasting refers to the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio
signals (radio) or audiovisual signals (television) that are readily accessible to a
wide population via standard receivers.

• The term broadcasting evolved from its use as the agricultural method of
sowing seeds in a field by casting them broadly about. It was later adopted for
describing the wide spread distribution of information by printed materials or by
telegraph.

• Transmission of radio and television programs from a radio or television station

to home receivers by radio waves is referred to as "over the air" (OTA) or
terrestrial broadcasting and in most countries requires a broadcasting license.

• Transmissions using a wire or cable, like cable television (which also retransmits
OTA stations with their consent), are also considered broadcasts, but do not
necessarily require a license (though in some countries, a license is required).
TYPES OF SERVICES
 Amateur Service
a radio communication service for the purpose of self-training,
intercommunication and technical investigations carried out by amateurs.

 Broadcasting Service
a radio communication service in which the transmission are intended for direct
reception by the general public. This service may include sound transmissions,
television transmissions or other types of transmissions.

 Broadcast-Satellite Service
a radio communication service in which signals transmitted or retransmitted
by space stations are intended for direct reception by the general public.

 Land Mobile Service

a mobile service between base stations and land mobile stations, or between
land mobile stations.
Types of stations
 Amateur Stations
a station used by an amateur, that is a duly authorized person interested in radio
technique solely with a personal aim and without pecuniary interest.

 Base Station
a radio station in the land mobile service, which is not intended for operation
while in motion.

 Broadcasting Station
a station in the broadcasting service.

 Land Mobile Station

a radio station in the land mobile service, which is capable of surface
movement within the geographical limits of the country and which is
intended to be used while in motion or during halls at unspecified points.
Types of stations
 Mobile Stations
a station in mobile service intended to be used wile in motion or during halls at
unspecified points.

 Mobile Portable Station

a radio station composed of a transmitter and a receiver or transceiver with
self-contained antenna system and power supply and whose output does not
exceed 50W, whose construction is such that it can be move or carried by a
single person

 Fixed Station
a station in the fixed service.

 Portable Station
a mobile station in the land mobile service which can be conveniently
moved from one place to another or carried in person and intended to
be used while in motion or during temporary halts.
HISTORY OF AM
BROADCASTING
Early Broadcasting Development

On October 1898 a London publication, The Electrician, noted that

"there are rare cases where, as Dr. Oliver Lodge once expressed it, it
might be advantageous to 'shout' the message, spreading it
broadcast to receivers in all directions".

On January 1, 1902, Nathan Stubblefield gave a

short-range "wireless telephone" demonstration, that
included simultaneously broadcasting speech and
music to seven locations throughout Murray,
Kentucky.
The earliest public radiotelegraph broadcasts were provided as
government services, beginning with daily time signals inaugurated on
January 1, 1905, by a number of U.S. Navy stations.

One of the earliest radio broadcasts,

French soprano Mariette Mazarin
singing into Lee de Forest's arc
transmitter in New York City on February
24, 1910.
Early Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmitter Technologies
Raginald Fessenden
- credited as the primary developer of AM technology
- Canadian-born inventor
- realized that there was a need to produce a new radio transmitter to correct the
“damped waves” produce by the old transmitters.
- undamped waves are now called continuous wave
Arc transmitter
• Initially developed by Valdemar Poulsen (1903)
• Worked by producing pulsating electrical arc in an
enclosed hydrogen atmosphere
• Much more compact compared to alternator
transmitter
• Operates at a higher transmitting frequencies.
Vacuum tube transmitter

• Revolutionized radio technology.

• 1915, began the advancement in vacuum
technology (“valves”)
• Used to amplify electrical current to
overcame overheating issues of needing
to insert microphones directly in the
transmission antenna circuit.
• Provides high-quality AM signals
• Operates at higher frequencies than
alternator and arc transmitter.
Decline in popularity
• 1940’s, FM radio and television began to provide extensive
competition with the established broadcasting services.
• AM radio industry suffered a serious loss of audience and advertising
revenue.
• Development of the format broadcasting: instead of broadcasting
the same programs all over the country, stations individually adopted
specialized formats which appealed to different audiences
• Instead of live music, most stations began playing less expensive
recorded music.
AM Stereo
• AM radio industry in the United States developed technology for
broadcasting in stereo.
• Effort was challenging due to the need to limit the transmissions to a
20 kHz bandwidth.
• In 1980 the FCC selected the Magnavox PMX system as the U.S.
standard, but this choice was immediately contested by the losing
applicants in the courts.
• In 1982, the FCC reversed its decision and decided not to enforce a
common standard, but instead allow multiple systems to be installed,
in order to "let the marketplace decide".
• Other nations adopted AM stereo, most commonly choosing
Motorola's C-QUAM.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
AM AND FM
AM (or Amplitude Modulation)
and FM (or Frequency Modulation)
are ways of broadcasting radio
signals.
Similarities:
• Transmit the information in the form
of electromagnetic waves.
Difference:
• AM works by modulating (varying)
the amplitude of the signal.
• FM technology in which
information (sound) is encoded by
varying the frequency of the wave
and the amplitude is kept
constant.
 COMPARISON TABLE
AM
Origin Successfully carried out in the mid
1870s.
Modulating "carrier" or "carrier wave" is
differences modulated in amplitude by the
signal that is to be transmitted. The
frequency and phase remain the
same.
Pros and cons Has poorer sound quality but is
cheaper and can be transmitted
over long distances.
It has a lower bandwidth so it can
have more stations available in any
frequency range.
FM
Developed in the United states in
the 1930s, mainly by Edwin
Armstrong.
"carrier" or "carrier wave" is
modulated in frequency by the
signal that is to be transmitted. The
amplitude and phase remain the
same.
Less prone to interference however
FM signals are impacted by
physical barriers.
Has better sound quality due to
higher bandwidth.
 COMPARISON TABLE
AM
Frequency Range 535 to 1705 KHz (OR) Up to
1200 bits per second.
Bandwidth Requirements Twice the highest modulating
frequency.
Modulating signal has
bandwidth of 15kHz, and
hence the bandwidth of an
amplitude-modulated signal
is 30kHz.
Zero crossing in modulated Equidistant
signal
FM
88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to
2400 bits per second.
Twice the sum of the
modulating signal frequency
and the frequency deviation.
If the frequency deviation is
75kHz and the modulating
signal frequency is 15kHz, the
bandwidth required is
180kHz.
Not equidistant
 COMPARISON TABLE
AM
Complexity Transmitter and receiver are
simple but synchronization is
needed in case of SSBSC
AM carrier.
Noise AM is more susceptible to
noise because noise affects
amplitude, which is where
information is "stored" in an
AM signal.
FM
Transmitter and receiver are
more complex as variation
of modulating signal has to
be converted and
detected from
corresponding variation in
frequencies.(i.e. voltage to
frequency and frequency
to voltage conversion has
to be done).
FM is less susceptible to
noise because information
in an FM signal is transmitted
through varying the
frequency, and not the
amplitude.
Summary:
• FM and AM radio operates in the same manner but
differ on how the carrier is modulated.
• AM is amplitude modulated and FM is frequency
modulated
• Both signals are susceptible to slight changes in
amplitude.
• With an AM broadcast, these changes result in static.
With an FM broadcast, slight changes in amplitude
don't matter -- since the audio signal is conveyed
through changes in frequency, the FM receiver can
just ignore changes in amplitude. The result: no static
at all.
Pros and Cons of AM
Pros:
• Relatively easy to detect with simple equipment even if signal is
not very strong.
• Has narrower bandwidth and wider coverage.
• Uses less complicated receiver and transmitter than FM.

Cons:
• Signals are affected by electrical storms and other radio
frequency interference.
• Although it can transmit sound waves up to 15kHz frequency,
most receivers are able to produce only 5kHz or less.
• FM has better sound quality.
FREQUENCY
ASSIGNMENT
 Band/use Wavelength Frequency
LW (Long wave) 5km–1km 60kHz–300kHz
AM/MW (Amplitude modulation / 600m–176m 500kHz–1.7MHz
medium wave)
SW (Short wave) 188m–10m 1.6MHz–30MHz
VHF/FM (Very high frequency / 10m–6m 100MHz–500MHz
frequency modulation)
FM (frequency modulation) 3.4m–2.8m 88MHz–125Mhz
Aircraft 2.7m–2.2m 108–135MHz
Cellphones 80cm–15cm 380–2000MHz
Radar 100cm–3mm 0.3–100GHz
Noticethat the wavelength and the frequency
move in opposite directions.
As the wavelengths of radio waves get smaller
(moving down the table), so their frequency gets
bigger (higher).
Butif you multiply the frequency and wavelength of
any of these waves, you'll find you always get the
same result: 300 million meters per second, better
known as the speed of light.
 Frequency allocation (or spectrum allocation)
is the division of the electromagnetic spectrum into
radio frequency bands. This spectrum management is
regulated by governments in most countries. Radio
propagation does not stop at national boundaries. Giving
technical and economic reasons, governments have
sought to harmonize the allocation of RF bands and their
standardization.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION
A number standards bodies work on standards for
frequency allocation, including:
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT)
 Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)

BODIES
The allocation might be primary, secondary, exclusive, and
shared.
 primaryallocation: is indicated by writing in capital letters
(see example below)
 secondary allocation: is indicated by small letters
 exclusiveor shared utilization: is within the responsibility of
administrations

However, military usage, in bands where there is civil usage,

will be in accordance with the ITU Radio Regulations. In NATO
countries military mobile utilizations will be in accordance
with the NATO Joint Civil/Military Frequency Agreement
(NJFA).
REGULATIONS OF NATIONAL
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
COMMISSION
The National Telecommunications
Commission (NTC), pursuant to Act 3846, as
amended, is mandated to provide
regulations to all telecommunications
services in the country. The Act empowers
the Commission to regulate the construction,
manufacture, possession, control, sale and
transfer as well as the establishment, use,
operation of all of radio, broadcast and
telecommunications services. The NTC was
created by virtue of Executive Order No. 546
dated July 23, 1979.
MEMORANDUM CIRCULAR
NO. 11-21-88
IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE AUTHORIZATION,
INSTALLATION, OPERATION, ETC. OF THE PERSONAL RADIO SERVICE IN THE
PHILIPPINES

Section I. PURPOSE
To prescribe rules and regulations to govern the authorization, installation and
operation of the Personal Radio service for the orderly, efficient and effective
utilization of the radio frequency spectrum and to serve the short distance
communications needs of qualified persons and small business entities, which
otherwise cannot as yet be provided for public carriers.
Section 2. DEFINITION OF TERMS
2.1 Personal Radio Service – A land mobile radio service intended for short distance two-
way personal and business communications authorized to qualified person and business
entities.
2.2 Personal Base Radio Station – A radio station in the Personal Radio Service installed at a
specified fixed location and operated to communicate with personal mobile or personal
portable radio stations.
2.3 Personal Land Mobile Radio Station – A radio station in the Personal Radio Service
installed on board vehicle or vessel and intended for use while in motion or during halts at
unspecified points.
2.4 Personal Portable radio Station – A radio station in the Personal Radio service so
designed that it may be conveniently be moved about from one place to another or
personally carried and be operated while in motion or during temporary halts.
2.5 Radio Station – one or more transmitters, receivers or combinations of transmitters and
receivers including the accessories equipment authorized at a location for carrying on a
radio communication service.
2.6 Restricted Land Mobile Permit (RLMP) – a permit issued by NTC to a qualified person in
order him to operate a licensed land mobile radio station.
2.7 Second Class Radiotelephone Operator Certificate – a certificate issued by NTC to a
qualified person in order him to operate a licensed land base radio station under the PRS.
Section 3. APPLICATIONS, PERMITS/LICENSES AND/OR OPERATOR CERTIFICATE

3.1 Station permits/licenses and/or certificates

3.1.1 No person, corporation, association or entity shall be allowed to install,
operate and maintain a personal radio system without first obtaining from the
National Telecommunications Commission, the following:
-Permit to Purchase/Possess prior to the acquisition of the radio
equipment for Personal Radio Service.
- Construction Permit prior to the construction and/or installation of the personal
base radio station.
For mobile radio station, the radio station license carries with it the authority to
install or construct.
- Radio Station License prior to the operation of the personal radio station.
3.1.2 Operators of radio stations shall be holders of a valid operator’s certificate.

3.2 The radio station license issued under the Personal radio service shall have a
maximum validity period of three (3) years subject to renewal

3.3 The schedule of fees for this service shall be the same as that prescribe by the NTC
for regular commercial station licenses.
Section 4. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR AN APPLICANT
4.1 Citizen of the Philippines.
4.2 If an individual, at least 18 years old and of good moral character.
4.3 If a business entity, must be duly organized and incorporated in accordance with
the Philippines Laws.
4.4 Nature, scope, area and extent of the operation.

Section 5. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

5.1 The frequency bands/channels to be allocated for this Service shall be strictly on a
sharing and non-interference basis for authorized license of this Service.
5.2 License shall operate on a frequency sharing basis in the bands/channels allocated
and in the specific frequency assignment and within the specific service area
coverage indicated in the license issued by the National Telecommunications
Commission.
5.3 Licensees shall operate on a frequency sharing basis in the bands/channels
allocated and in the specific frequency assignment and within the specific service area
coverage indicated in the license issued by the National Telecommunications
Commission.
5.4 Licensees shall operate only within the parameters of the station power output
authorized by the NTC.
5.5 The type of emission shall be limited to voice only.
5.6 The Commission may, in the interest of improved communications, adopt additional
parameters for the effective and efficient use of the Personal Radio Service.
5.7 Any modification of the Personal Radio license by reason of transfer of location of
the base or mobile stations or for additional or change of equipment or other related
major modification to be effected in the license must be duly covered by an
application and duly approved by the Commission.

Section 6. RULES TO GOVERN THE OPERATION OF PERSONAL RADIO SERVICES

6.1 Transmission must be in plain language of either English or Pilipino.
6.2 All transmission shall carry identification signals and for this purpose, NTC shall assign
a distinctive call sign for each station.
6.3 All call signs shall be conspicuously indicated at the authorized location of the
station and/or on the equipment in the case of a portable station.
6.4 Station licenses/permits and/or certificates must be conspicuously posted in the
place of their respective locations authorized and/or where to be operated as
indicated in the authorization.
6.5 A licensee shall operate his station in accordance with his authorization and in
manner as to prevent any harmful interference with other existing authorized
communications services.
Section 7. ADMINISTRATIVE SANCTION
Violation of law, rules and regulations, permits/licenses and/or certificates issued by this
Commission shall subject any grantee to the imposition of a fine and/or the
cancellation/suspension of its authorization and/or the forfeiture of the equipment
involved.
Any person who is not a holder of any of the permits/licenses and/or certificates issued
by this Commission shall be subjected to the imposition of fines and the confiscation
and forfeiture of any illegal radio found in his possession or operation, in addition to
such other sanctions provided for by law.

Section 8. EFFECTIVITY
This circular takes effect immediately and may be revised, revoked or amended, in the
interest of good and improved communication service as determined by the
Commission.
HISTORY OF AM STATIONS
IN DAVAO CITY
 First Air Started Frequency Station Name Call Sign
July 1946 819 KHz DXUM Radyo Ukay University of - Studio -Ponciano St.
Mindanao - Transmitter – UM Matina
- “Ukay” – to dig issues and
reports
- Known as “Investigative”
Radio
- UM Broadcasting Network
1949 855 KHz DXGO Aksyon - Located at R. Castillo Ave.
Radyo - *Sa DAVAO … Aksyon Radyo!
- Manila Boadcasting Co.

June 12, 1957 621 KHz DXDC RMN Davao Davao - Studio – A. Bonifacio St.
Community/ - Transmitter – Madapa Hills DC
City - *Tatak RMN
- Radio Mindanao Network
July 4, 1957 1125 KHz Super Radyo DXGM Global Media - Studio – Shrine Hills, Matina
Davao Arts - Transmitter – Ma-a, DC
- *Kini ang Balita!
- GMA Network Inc.
1975 576 KHz DXMF Bombo Radyo Rogelio M. - Studio – San Pedro St., Davao
Davao Florete City
- Transmitter – Ma-a, DC
- *Basta Radyo … BOMBO
- People’s Broadcasting
Service, Inc.

1975 783 KHz DXRA Radyo ni Juan Radyo - Studio – JP. Laurel St., DC
Arangkada - Station has been critical of
their violent atrocities against
the Filipino people.
- Aug. 27, 1987, station was
attacked by NPA. The DXRA
Massacre resulted in 9
deaths.
- Rizal Memorial Colleges
Broadcasting Corporation

March 1988 1224 KHz DXED Radyo Agila Erano De - Studio and transmitter-
Davao Guzman Agdao, DC.
Manalo - *Mabilis, Malakas,
Pumapagaspas
- Owned by Eagle
Broadcasting Corp. (Iglesia ni
Cristo
1960’s 981 KHz DXOW Radyo - Studio – F. Torres St., DC
Asenso Davao - Former callsign is DXMT
Davao. Known as the first
Golden Sound in the airwaves of
Davao.
- Radio Corp. of the Phil.

1961 1071 KHz RPN DXKT Radyo - Studio – Marfori Heights, DC

Ronda Davao - Transmitter – Bolton Isla, DC
- Radio Phil. Network and Nine
Media Corp. in the Phil.
1965 675 KHz DXRP Radyo Republika ng - Studio – Matina, Davao City
Pilipinas Davao Pilipinas - Phil. Broadcasting Service
648 KHz DXHM Radio Veritas Heart of Mary - Owned and operated by the
Roman Catholic Diocese of
Mati
- Religious broadcasting
1972 1197 KHz DXFE The Good - Studio – Dona Vicenta
News Radio Village, Davao City
- *The Good News Radio
- Owned by Far East
Broadcasting Company
1996 1260 KHz DZRH Nationwide - Studio – Matina, DC
Davao - * One nation, One station
Kaunaunahan sa Pilipinas
- Manila Broadcasting
Company

March 16, 1997 1296 KHz DXAB Radyo Patrol Alto - Studio- shrine hills Matina, DC
Davao Broadcasting - Transmitter – Mc Arthur
Highway, Matina, DC
- *Una sa Balita, Una sa Public
Service
- First air date on 1957 as
DXAW
- ABS-CBN Corporation

2005 711 KHz DXRD Sonshine Radyo Davao - Studio – Catitipan, Davao
Radio Davao City
- First air date on 1967 as NBC
DXRD
- *Your Earth Friendly Radio
- Pastor Apollo C. Quiboloy
- Sonshine Media Network Int’l
Jan. 1, 2006 1017 KHz DXAM Radyo - Studio – Damosa, DC
Rapido - Transmitter – Munong, DC
- First air date on 2001 as The
Radio of Life
- *Respetado, Responsible
- Kalayaan Broadcasting
System
FREQUENCY OF AM
STATIONS IN DAVAO
THE AM RADIO FREQUENCY
• The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio) carrier
frequencies are in the frequency range of 535-
1605kHz.
• The frequencies are assigned at 10kHz interval
Frequency Name Company Call Sign
576 AM Bombo Radyo Davao Bombo Radyo Philippines DXMF

621 AM DXDC 621 RMN Davao Radio Mindanao Network DXDC

648 AM Veritas 648 Radyo Totoo Catholic Media Network DXHM

675 AM DXRP Radyo Pilipinas 675 Philippine Broadcasting Service DXRP

Sonshine Media Network DXRD
711 AM DXRD Sonshine Radio Davao
International
Rizal Memorial Colleges DXRA
783 AM Radyo Ni Juan 783 kHz
Broadcasting Corporation
819 AM Radyo Ukay 819 kHz UM Broadcasting Network DXUM

855 AM Aksyon Radyo Davao 855 kHz Manila Broadcasting Company DXGO

981 AM Radyo Asenso Davao 981 kHz Radio Corporation of the Philippines DXOW
Radyo Rapido Diyes Disisyete DXAM
1017 AM Kalayaan Broadcasting System
(Rapid Radio)
1071 AM RPN DXKT Radyo Ronda Davao Radio Philippines Network DXKT

1125 AM Super Radyo DXGM 1125 GMA Network DXGM

1197 AM 1197 DXFE The Good News Radio Far East Broadcasting Company DXFE

1224 AM DXED Radyo Agila 1224 Eagle Broadcasting Corporation DXED

1260 AM DZRH Nationwide Davao Manila Broadcasting Company DXDH

1296 AM DXAB Radyo Patrol 1296 ABS-CBN Corporation DXAB

AM BROADCAST STANDARDS
MAXIMUM POWER ALLOCATION IN KW
AM ANTENNA SYSTEM
 Antenna Site Considerations
 Location in relation to the population to be served and to
other installations and airports.
 Conductivity of the soil at and immediately adjacent to the
site.
 Conductivity of the path between the site and the target
area.
AM TRANSMITTER
 Transmitter Location and Lay out
Considerations

Adequate space
Adequate ventilation and airconditioning
Adequate lighting
AM TRANSMITTER
 Transmitter Design
AM TRANSMITTER

 Alternate Main Transmitter

Consideration
 The regular and alternate main transmitter to be co-
located in a single place.
 Both transmitters shall maintain the same parameters
especially with regards to authorized operating
power,frequency stability, and etc.
AM TRANSMITTER

 Auxiliary Transmitter Consideration

 May be installed either in the same location as the
regular main transmitter or in another location.
 Its operating power may be less but never greater than
the authorized power of the regular main transmitter.
AM BROADCAST OPERATING REQUIREMENTS

 Operating Schedule
 2/3 of the total hours that it is authorized to operate
between 6 AM to 6PM local standard time.
 2/3 of the total hours that it is authorized to operate
between 6 PM to midnight local standard time.
AM BROADCAST OPERATING REQUIREMENTS

 Program Log Entries

 An entry of the time each station identification
announcement is made.
 An entry briefly describing each program broadcast
 An entry showing that each sponsored program broadcast
has been announced as sponsored.
 An entry showing, for each program of network origin,
the name of the network originating the program.
AM BROADCAST OPERATING REQUIREMENTS

 Operating Log Entries

 An entry of the time the station begins to supply power to
the antenna and time it stops.
 An entry of the time the program begins and ends.
 An entry of each interruptions.
 An entry of the following every 30
minutes: Operating constants and antenna current.
AM BROADCAST TERMINOLOGIES
 Daytime
 Refers to that period of time between 2100
GMT – 1000 GMT (5:00AM – 6:00PM local standard
time).
 Experimental period
 Refers to that period of time between 1600
GMT -2100 GMT (12 midnight -5:00 AM local standard
time).
Nighttime
 Refers to that period of time between 1000-2100
GMT (6:00PM – 5:00AM local standard time).
 FM BROADCASTING
Introduction to FM Broadcasting System and Standards, FM Studio System
Design; FM Transmission System Design, FM Coverage Mapping and
Production

Members: Acidillo | Aguirre | Cacayorin | Kuan | Nemaria | Salve | Silverio | Torino

OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
A REVIEW ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
Modulation

 The primary purpose of radiobroadcasting is to transmit intelligence. Audio signals by

themselves cannot be radiated into space as electromagnetic energy and travel great
distances. Some method must be used of helping to propagate the intelligence through space.
 It was known that radio-frequency waves could be propagated through space very easily in the
form of electromagnetic waves. It was possible to use these r-f waves as a means of
transporting the audio signals to the receivers. Briefly, this was accomplished by superimposing
the intelligence on the r-f wave (that is, the carrier). This superimposition of one signal on the
another is termed modulation.

Direct FM - when the frequency of the carrier is varied directly

Indirect FM - when the phase of the carrier is modulated
A REVIEW ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
A REVIEW ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
A REVIEW ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
Therefore…
For FM
 The maximum frequency increase and decrease occur at the maximum
amplitudes of the positive and negative half cycle of the audio modulation
signal respectively.
For PM
 During the reversal of the modulating signal from positive half to the negative
half cycle, the decrease in frequency is at its maximum.
 When the modulating signal reverses from negative to positive half cycle, the
increase of frequency is at its maximum.
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
A REVIEW ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM Transmitter
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
A REVIEW ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM Receiver
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
RADIO BROADCASTING
 Radio enables d i s t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n . If we talk about radio broadcast, it
simply refers to an audio form of communication, and using radio waves, an electromagnetic
radiation to broadcast from a transmitter to a receiving antenna.
 As we know there are different types of radio stations but the best known kind of radio stations
are the ones that broadcast through radio waves. These generally consists of AM and FM
stations.

2 Types of Radio Broadcasting

AM broadcasting & FM broadcasting
Why is FM less prone to
interference than AM?
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE RADIO
The First Radio Station in the Philippines

There is a debate on what exactly was the first radio station in the country. In 1924 an American
established the first AM radio station KZKZ.

But an archive of radio broadcast histories revealed that in 1922, an American woman named
Mrs. Redgrave made a test broadcast using a five-watt transmitter.

While little is known about Redgrave’s experiment, it is believed that the test broadcast made from
Nichols field (now Villamor Airbase) could be the very first radio station in the Pearl of the Orient.
HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE RADIO
First Radio Network

Henry Hermann, founder of the Electrical Supply Company (Manila) gained permission, possibly
from local government and the military to operate more than one station. The test broadcasts
delivered music over the air to wealthy residents who owned radio receivers.

This network of test broadcasts, however, was summed up into one 100-watt powered AM station
bearing the call letters KZKZ on 729 kHz.

Radio Corporation of the Philippines (RCP) later bought KZKZ in October 1924.

RCP expanded in Cebu putting up KZRC (Radio Cebu) in 1929, which is now DYRC.
HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE RADIO
Branded Radio Programs

All radio programs back in the day were English. They resemble pretty much like those radio
shows heard from the continental US. In fact, the sponsorships were also patterned after famous
American radio programs like the Listerine Amateur Hour or the Klim Musical Quiz.

Before KBP
Radio stations back then were not regulated until the year 1931. The Radio Control Board was
instigated under the US colonial government. The regulating agency took care of the license
applications and frequency allocation.

Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipina (KBP) came only in April 7, 1973.

HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE RADIO
Call Letters from K to D

KZ was used because the Philippines was then a colony of America. All call letters of radio
stations in the US starter either with K or W.

Francisco Koko Trinidad, known as the father of Philippine Broadcasting attended the
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) in 1947, held in Atlantic City in the US.

Trinidad proposed to use RP instead of KZ. But this was denied by the ITU and gave the letter D
as a replacement to KZ.
HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE RADIO
“D” Was Originally for German Stations

Professor Elizabeth Enriquez of UP Manila, on her research, explained why Philippine radio
station call letters start with “D” and why it actually meant Deutscheland, or the German name of
Germany.

“Trinidad remembers insisting on changing the first two call letters of Philippine radio to RP, to
stand for Republic of the Philippines, in lieu of the American KZ. Koko wanted the world to know about the
newly independent republic through the radio call letters. The ITU rejected the call letters RP because of
the amount of trouble it would take to secure the approval of the entire international body, and the
international changes that might have become necessary for such a change.

However, the ITU, which decided to punish Germany for using radio for propaganda and to advance the
cause of Nazism, deprived Germany of its right to use the broadcast airwaves. The ITU then gave the
Philippines the right to use the call letter D (which had stood for Deutscheland, or the German name of
Germany)”
HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE RADIO

So much has happened to the Philippine Radio industry since that historic 1922 test broadcast in
Nichols field. According to a historian, the Philippines was the first Asian country to operate a
radio station, ahead of China and even New Zealand.

AM Radio stations used to be in English, now all announcers speak vernacular. The FM band,
once dominated by American-sounding radio formats, are now favoring local sounds.

American roots and a Deutsch call letter, yet little is left of these foreign influences.
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
FM STATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES
FM STATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES
FM STATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
FM BROADCASTING
 FM broadcasting is a broadcast technology which utilizes frequency modulation (FM) to provide

high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio.

 When broadcasting first started in the 1920s amplitude modulation was the form of modulation

used. It was the obvious and the easiest way to transmit sound.

 However as radio technology developed its shortcomings became more obvious. The long and

medium wave bands became more congested, giving rise to interference. Also the static and

other background noise meant that high quality transmissions were not feasible.
FM BROADCASTING
 It had been thought that the key to improving quality was to narrow the bandwidth of the

transmission to reduce the amount of interference received. However this also reduced the

audio bandwidth that could be transmitted and in addition to this, much noise was still present.

 The quest for higher quality transmissions lead to the introduction of wideband frequency

modulation. Although the first commercial stations were set up in the USA around 1939, it was

not until the 1950s that FM started to become really accepted. It was in 1954 that the BBC

announced their intention to start FM broadcasting. Now VHF FM is the accepted medium for

high quality transmissions, and stations that use AM on the medium and long wave bands have

to work hard to retain listeners who prefer the higher quality of VHF FM.
FM BROADCASTING
 During 1930s, Edwin H Armstrong

invented FM radio. He invented it to

overcome the interference problem

associated with AM radio broadcasting to

which is relatively immune.

OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
FM BROADCASTING STANDARDS

Technical Standards and Operating Requirements for FM

Broadcast Stations in the Philippines

By:

Technical Standards Committee

of the
Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster sa Pilipinas
FM BROADCASTING STANDARDS
In order to ensure that receivers can receive all the stations satisfactorily, that interference
levels are reduced and that equipment can be standardized more, there are common
standards used by the licensing authorities.
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS
 The pre-emphasis and de-emphasis idea can be used on VHF FM because the background

noise is more noticeable towards the treble end of the audio spectrum, where it can be heard

as a background hiss.

 Pre-emphasis: the enhancement on high frequency components of input signal from the

receiver

 De-emphasis: the suppression on high frequency components of output demodulated signal

PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS
Pre-emphasis
circuit
 At the transmitter, the

modulating signal is passed

through a simple network

which amplifies the high

frequency.
De-emphasis
circuit
 To return the frequency

response to its normal level, a

de-emphasis is used at the

receiver.
Combined frequency response
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
Stereo VHF FM Broadcast
 In recent years stereo transmission has become an accepted part of VHF FM transmissions.

MONO STEREO
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
Radio Data System (RSD)
 Radio Data System (RDS) is a communications protocol standard for embedding small

amounts of digital information in conventional FM radio broadcasts.

 Radio Broadcast Data System (RBDS) is the official name used for the U.S. version of

RDS.
Radio Data System
 RDS has been developed under the auspices of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) since 1974.
The aim of the system is the instant and unique identification of the FM station in order to help the radio
listener to find his/her way in the over-burdened FM radio band.
 The System was developed primarily as a service for car radio reception, where reception conditions
may change within seconds, due to the nature of FM broadcasting in relation to a moving car. When
driving from one place to another, the RDS circuit constantly monitors the FM station and automatically
changes to the same programme on an alternative frequency/transmitter if the reception is
unsatisfactory.
 Stationary radio receivers do not face the same problem as car radios. But the number of FM radio
stations in Europe exploded in the 1980's and the '90s. Today there are more than 20,000. In many
areas today up to 30 - 40 different stations can be received and this makes it extremely difficult to find
out which station you are actually listening to and whether the right station has been found. A basic
benefit of RDS is its ability to identify individual stations and show the identity on a display.
RDS Services
Programme Identification (PI)
PI is used in the RDS decoder in the receiver. None of the PI data is shown on the display. The
PI code identifies the radio station according to country, area coverage (options: local/national) and
programme reference number of the station. PI is the most significant data and must be broadcast in
every group - in some versions PI is sent in two of the blocks of a group.

Programme Service Name (PS)

PS is the data used for showing the name of the station on the display. It consists of up to eight
characters, in ASCII format and can be displayed on all types of alphanumeric displays. PS data is
important and must be relayed once in every group.
RDS Services
Music/speech switch (M/S)
This is a two-state signal to provide information on whether music or speech is being broadcast.
The signal would permit receivers to be equipped with two separate volume controls, one for music and
one for speech, so that the listener could adjust the balance between them to suit his individual listening
habits.

Decoder Identification (DI)

DI provides information on the FM signal, i.e. mono/stereo/compression/artificial head stereo or if
a noise reduction system (or combinations) has been employed. Up to 16 different DI codes can be
broadcast with combinations of 4-bits.
RDS Services
Alterative Frequencies (AF)
AF is mainly for car and portable radio reception, in so far as it renders information on up to 25
alternative frequencies for the programme that is actually being received. AF thus enables the receiver to
automatically select an alternative frequency for the reception if the alternative frequency can be received
at higher signal strength.

Traffic Programme identification (TP)

TP provides information that the station being received regularly broadcasts traffic information.
The service can be used for automatic search for a traffic programme, e.g. in a car radio. TP is transmitted
simply as a one-bit code, denoting that the station in question carries traffic programmes or that it does not
carry traffic programmes. TP is transmitted in all groups.
RDS Services
Radio Text (RT)
This function allows a radio station to transmit a 64-character free-form textual information that
can be either static e.g. station slogans or in sync with the programming such as the title and artist of the
currently-playing song. This refers to text transmissions, primarily addressed to consumer home receivers,
which would be equipped with suitable display facilities.
RDS Services
Traffic Announcements (TA)
If TP is provided, TA can be transmitted alongside so that the receiver may automatically switch from other
sources, from stations without TP, or from stand-by to the traffic announcements. After the traffic announcement the
receiver switches back to the original mode. As with TP, TA works with a simple either/or situation and thus only use 1 -
bit to denote that a traffic announcement is being broadcast at present/no traffic announcements. TA is transmitted in
some of the possible group combinations

Programme Type Identification (PTY)

Up to 31 different programme types can be identified if PTY is implemented. PTY must be dynamic and
usually change at least as often as the programme changes. Programme types include for children, news, pop, jazz,
serious classical music, light classical music, entertainment. Code 31 is an alarm code intended to have priority. It
should switch the receiver to the station transmitting the alarm message, no matter what mode the receiver was left in.
PTY can be used for selection of favourite programme types in the receiver with automatic switching if the programme
changes to another programme type. PTY also allows the user to make a scan search for types instead of just flipping
through the available programmes indiscriminately.
RDS Services
What's the detailed Programme Types list?
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
SCA
 Subsidiary Communications Authorization (SCA) in the United States, and Subsidiary Communications
Multiplex Operation (SCMO) in Canada, is a subcarrier on a radio station, allowing the station to
broadcast additional services as part of its signal.
SCA
 Subcarrier channels falling under the description of SCA are usually on FM at 67 kHz and 92 kHz from
the main carrier, and 67 kHz is the most common. Major uses of SCA include:
 For talking book/radio reading service for the blind: usually carried on NPR-affiliated public radio
stations in the United States. In Canada, this is usually provided by VoicePrint over television
second audio programs instead.
 For commercial paging service: sent via FM subcarrier to the subscriber with a compatible pager
 For data broadcasting: Microsoft's now-defunct DirectBand service (used by MSN Direct) relied on
SCA FM subcarriers; Data Broadcasting Corporation's Signal service used SCA for sending real-
time stock quotes.
 For closed-circuit or specialized radio programming aimed at certain markets or professions, such
as the Physician's Radio Network, agricultural commodity & futures information (via voice or data),
or ethnic foreign-language radio programming.
OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
Quadraphonic FM
 Quadraphonic (or Quadrophonic and

sometimes Quadrasonic) sound –

equivalent to what is now called 4.0

surround sound – uses four channels in

which speakers are positioned at the

four corners of the listening space,

reproducing signals that are (wholly or in

part) independent of one another.

OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
Reception Distance
 FM radio waves do not travel far beyond the visual horizon, so reception distances for FM

stations are usually limited to 30—40 miles (48.3—64.4 km) They can also be blocked by hills.

This is less than the range of AM radio waves, which because of their lower frequency can

travel as ground waves or reflect off the ionosphere, so AM radio stations can be received at

hundreds (sometimes thousands) of miles.

 It is not possible to have hundreds of miles of range on FM broadcast band (87.5MHz to

108MHz), even if terrain is perfectly flat and you have your antenna on the top of the mountain

and you're using kilowatts of power.

OUTLINE OF REPORT
I. A Review on Frequency Modulation
II. FM Transmitter
III. FM Receiver
IV. Introduction to Radiobroadcasting
V. A Review on the History of Philippine Radio
VI. FM Stations in the Philippines
VII. Introduction to FM Broadcasting
VIII. FM Broadcasting Standards
IX. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
X. Stereo FM
XI. Radio Data System
XII. Subsidiary Communications Authority
XIII. Quadraphonic FM
XIV. Reception Distance
XV. Coverage Maps
Coverage Maps
 The coverage pattern for each FM station is calculated using the effective radiated power

(ERP) of the station and the antenna height above average terrain (HAAT). The HAAT is

calculated in all directions based upon the average ground elevation between 1.5 and 10 miles

from the station in each direction.

ERP measures the combination of the power emitted by the transmitter and the
ability of the antenna to direct that power in a given direction.

HAAT measures how high a transmitting point is above the surrounding

topography.
•Local Coverage: Within this area, you should be
able to receive the radio station on almost any
radio with moderately good to very good
reception.
•Distant Coverage: Within this area, the signal of
the radio station may be weak unless you have a
good car radio or a good stereo with a good
antenna. You may not be able to receive the
station at all on walkmans or other portable
radios.
•Fringe Coverage: Within this area, the station's
signal will be very weak. You may be able to
receive this station if you have a very good radio
with a good antenna, but it's possible that
interference from other stations may prevent you
from picking up these stations at all.
DXDA-
FM
Charm

FM
DXSA-
FM