Welding - definition

• Welding – A joining process of two materials,

metals/non-metals, that are coalesced by the
application of pressure and/or temperature.
• Welding – Local coalescence of two similar or
dissimilar metallic parts at their faying surfaces.
• Weldment – The assemblage of two or more
elements
• Sometime a filler material is needed to facilitate
coalescence in Arc/Fusion welding process.
• Autogenous welding – without filler materials
 Advantage - disadvantage

• Advantage: Welding is portable, permanent,

stronger than the parent materials with a filler
metal, the most economical method to join.

Disadvantage: Manual Labor, high energy and

dangerous, does not allow disassemble and
defects
Classification of welding processes
Welding
Soldering and brazing

Solid state welding Fusion welding

Resistance welding Soldering
Cold welding Brazing
Friction welding
Diffusion welding Electrical energy Chemical energy
Flash welding Oxyacetylene welding
Ultrasonic welding Oxyfuel gas welding
Explosion welding
Non
Consumable consumable Other processes
electrode electrode
Gas metal arc welding Gas tungsten arc welding Laser beam welding
Shielded metal arc welding
Atomic hydrogen welding Thermit welding
Submerged arc welding Plasma arc welding Electron beam welding
Flux cored arc welding
Electrogas welding
Electroslag welding
 Types of joints

– Butt joint

– Corner joint

– Lap joint

– Tee joint

– Edge joint
 Weld Joint

• Types of Welds
– Fillet weld

– Groove weld

– Plug and slot welds

– Spot and Seam welds

– Flange and Surfacing welds

 Weld Orientation
Plate groove positions 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G
Pipe groove positions 1G, 2G, 5G, 6G
Plate fillet positions 1F, 2F, 3F, 4F
Pipe fillet positions 1F, 2F, 2FR, 4F, 5F
GROOVE WELDS IN PLATE — TEST
POSITIONS
GROOVE WELDS IN PIPE — TEST
POSITIONS
FILLET WELDS IN PLATE — TEST
POSITIONS
FILLET WELDS IN PIPE — TEST
POSITIONS
 Features of a Fusion Welded Joint
Weld
Interface
Reinforcement

Fusion zone
HAZ
BM

• Fusion zone: a mixture of filler metal and base metal melted

together homogeneously due to convection as in casting.
Epitaxial grain growth (casting)
• Weld interface – a narrow boundary immediately solidified
after melting.
• Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) – below melting but substantial micro
structural change in the base material (heat treating)
• Unaffected base metal zone (UBMZ) – high residual stress
 Weldability
• Similar to Machinability, it defines the capacity of a metal
to be welded into a suitable design and the resulting weld
joint to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
• The factors affecting weldability, welding process, base
metal, filler metal and surface condition.
• Base metal – melting point, thermal conductivity and CTE
• Moisture and oxide film affects porosity and fusion
respectively.
• Carbon Equivalent(CE)= %C + %Mn/6 + (%Cr+Mo+V)/5 +
(%Cu+Ni)/15
 Metals
Ferrous Nonferrous
Carbon steels Aluminium,copper,
Nickel
Low carbon steels [Carbon 0.01 to 0.3%]
Medium carbon steels [Carbon 0.3-0.6%]
High carbon steels [carbon 0.6 to 1.4%]
Low alloy steels [ Mn, Cr,Ni,Mo < 7% total]
High alloy steels [Mn, Cr,Ni,Mo > 7% total]
 Purpose of WPS & PQR

To determine that the weldment

proposed for construction is capable
of having the required properties for
its intended application
 WPS
A WPS is a written qualified welding procedure
prepared to provide direction for making
production welds to Code requirements.
The WPS or other documents may be used to
provide direction to the welder or welding
operator to assure compliance with the Code
requirements.
 PQR
A PQR is a record of the welding data used to weld
a test coupon.
The PQR is a record of variables recorded during
the welding of the test coupons. It also contains
the test results of the tested specimens. Recorded
variables normally fall within a small range of the
actual variables that will be used in production
welding.
 Points to be considered for
establishing WPS
• Code of construction • Contract/Customer/
• Detailed drawing of Code/TPI
weldment • Preheat/Postheat/
• Material PWHT requirements
• Thickness • Skilled welder
• Configuration • Good welding m/c with
• Process accessories
• Application
 Essential Variables

A change in welding condition which will

affect the mechanical properties of the
weldment.
(Change in P Number, Welding process, Filler
metal, Electrode, Pre-heat, PWHT, etc.)
Non Essential Variables
A change in welding condition which will
NOT affect the mechanical properties of the
weldment.
(Change in Joint Design, Methods of Back
gauging, Cleaning, etc.)
 Supplementary Essential
Variables
A change in welding condition which will affect
the Notch-Toughness (Impact) properties of the
weldment.
(Change in Heat input, Uphill or Down Vertical
welding, Diameter of Electrode, Position, etc.)
 Base Metal Classification
Why P numbers?
To reduce the number of welding procedure
qualifications, base metals have been assigned
P-nos and for ferrous base metals which have specified
impact test requirements, group numbers within P-nos
are again given
P no's depend on composition, weldability & mechanical
properties.
•Group no's classify metals within P nos for procedure
qualification where notch toughness requirements are
specified.
•The above assignments do not imply that base metals
can be substituted without consideration of metallurgical
properties,etc.,
 Base Metals

• P. Number
• Group Number
• Specification
• Chemical Analysis & Mechanical
Properties
• Thickness Range
• Pipe Diameter Range
 Filler Metals

• AWS Number • Size of Filler metal

• SFA Number • Flux trade name
• Consumable insert
• F. Number
• Electrode flux class
• A. Number
 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES (AWS 5.1)

EXXXX
Electrode

60 Psi
Welding
70 position Coating and current
80 conditions
90
100
110
120
 Type of defects
• PLANAR
CRACKS, LAMELLAR TEARS
LACK OF FUSION
LACK OF PENETRATION
• VOLUMINAR
POROSITY
SLAG
TUNGSTEN INCLUSION
 Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
When are NDE Methods Used?

– To assist in product development

– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
Six Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• Radiography
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the
part.
• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped
penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface
where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The
penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye
and the inspection is done under UV light to increase
test sensitivity.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment
are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux
leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.
Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
 Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing is a
higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of
High Electrical Potential
the electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can come
from an X-ray generator or a radioactive Electrons
source. + -

X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation
source and a piece of film. The part will stop
some of the radiation. Thicker and more
dense area will stop more of the radiation.

The film darkness (density)

will vary with the amount
of radiation reaching the
X-ray film film through the test
object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
 Ultrasonic Inspection
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and
they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of
features that reflect sound. f

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
Thank you