Chapter 4 - 2consolidation

ECG303 –BASIC SOIL MECHANICS
WEEK 13 and 14 ~ CHAP. 4

COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS
INTRODUCTION
 Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume.
 According to Karl Terzaghi consolidation is any process which
involves decrease in water content of a saturated soil without
replacement of water by air.
 In general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place
by expulsion of water under long term static loads.
 It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil
particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk
volume.
 When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be
squeezed out of the soil.
 The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different
methods. In the Classical Method, developed by Karl von Terzaghi,
soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their
compression index.
 This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.
Consolidation
Introduction & Definition

 When a saturated layer is subjected to a stress
increase, the pore water pressure is suddenly
increased.
 In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the
drainage caused by the increase in the pore water
pressure is completed immediately. Pore water
drainage is accompanied by a reduction in the
volume of the soil mass, which results in
settlement. Because of rapid drainage of the pore
water in sandy soils, immediate settlement and
consolidation occur simultaneously.
3
Consolidation
…..Introduction & Definition – cont….
 When a saturated compressible clay layer is

subjected to a stress increase, the elastic
settlement occurs immediately. Because the
hydraulic conductivity of clay is significantly
smaller than that of sand, the excess pore water
pressure generated by loading gradually
dissipates over a long period. Thus the
associated volume change (i.e., the consolidation)
in the clay may continue long after the immediate
settlement. The settlement caused by
consolidation in clay may be several times greater
that the immediate settlement.
4
The Process of Consolidation & Settlement
The Process
• In coarse soils (sands and gravels) any
volume change resulting from a change in
loading occurs immediately; increases in pore
pressures are dissipated rapidly due to high
permeability.
• In fine soils (silts and clays) - with low
permeabilities - seepage is slow and therefore
excess pore pressures dissipate slowly.
• Volume changes are rapid to begin with, but
the rate diminishes with time.
Basic Process & Terminology

• Consider a site with:
• Initial steady-state groundwater conditions.
The Process of Consolidation &
Settlement
• An embankment is built, causing undrained loading,

the pore pressure in the soil below increases.
• Seepage flow occur and pore pressures decrease

• Consolidation takes place, settlement occurs, and

continues at a decreasing rate until steady-state
conditions are regained.
Consolidation Settlement
• Consolidation results in a change of thickness of soil layers,
which accumulates as a displacement at the ground surface
or the underside of a foundation.
• The aggregate settlement amount may not be the simple sum
of the changes in layer thicknesses (h1 + h2 + h3 + ...
etc.), especially under flexible loaded areas where the
settlement profile is saucer-shaped.
One Dimensional Consolidation

• A general theory for consolidation, incorporating three-
dimensional flow vectors is complicated and only
applicable to a very limited range of problems in
geotechnical engineering.
• For the vast majority of practical settlement problems,
it is sufficient to consider that seepage is taking place
in one direction only and the strains in the soil are
therefore one-dimension (usually vertical).

• One-dimensional consolidation specifically occurs when
there is no lateral strain, e.g. in the oedometer test.

• One-dimensional consolidation can be assumed to be
occurring under wide foundations.
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Terzaghi’s Theory of
Consolidation
Regarding the theory of consolidation, Terzaghi
made the following assumptions :-
 The soil is fully saturated and homogeneous.
 Both the water and the soil particles are
incompressible.
 Darcy’s law of water flow applies.
 The change in volume is one dimensional in the
direction of the applied stress.
 The coefficient of permeability and volume
compressibility remain constant.
 The change in volume corresponds to the change in
void ratio and ∆e/∆σ remains constant.
14
Consolidation
Theory
The rate of consolidation for a stratum of clay is

affected by the following factors:-
 the permeability of the soil
 the extent or thickness of the compressible soil

and the distance that pore water pressure of the
soil must travel to escape from the zone where
pressures due to the foundation loading exist
 the in-place void ratio of the compressible soil

 the ratio of new loading to the original loading
 the compression properties of the soil
15
Theory of Consolidation (Terzaghi Model)
• Steel springs represent the soil.
• The piston is supported by the spring.
• The valve is closed.
• When load is applied, the condition remains the same.
• The length of the spring is unchanged due to the state
of incompressible of soil and water.
Piston & Spring
Analogy
When a saturated soil

is loaded, there will
be an increase in the
pore water pressure.
Subsequently it will
be compressed
because of the
squeezing out of
water from the voids
17
Theory of Consolidation
,u
Initially : Finally :
u =  u = 0
’ = 0 ’ = 
 ’
 ’
u Time
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL Principle of effective stress
   ' u
Instantaneous 3
increase in total
1 stress, 
4
2  
 
’ = 0 ’ > 0

’ ’ =

u u =  u <  u = 0
Immediate (t = 0) Slow drainage cause excess pore water

CLAY (low pressure to decrease gradually.
stresses change.
permeability) Drainage does not Stress carried by the soil solids (effective
take effect. stress) increases.
Water is
incompressible
Primary consolidation is the volume change (settlement) due to the expulsion of
water that occupies the void spaces. This a gradual process of transferring excess
pore water pressure to effective stress (Phase 1 to 4). This phase ends when the
change in total stress equals the change in effective stress.
Notes: This slide was reproduced from Md. Noor’s Lecture Note.
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
Secondary consolidation : Volume change (settlement) due to plastic
adjustment of soil fabrics under CONSTANT effective stress which
occurs after complete dissipation of pore water pressure, u=0
(i.e. beyond phase 4).
Cont’d..
4
5 6 7
   
’= ’= ’= ’=
u=0 u=0 u=0 u=0
Diagrams 5, 6 & 7 : Soil fabrics start to orientate and move to a denser

state under CONSTANT effective stress and cause settlement.
The difference between compaction and consolidation.

Compaction
Soil particles are forced to rearrange into a closer state of
packing with a reduction in volume and the expulsion of air.
Time-independent process.
Consolidation
The reduction in volume due to the expulsion of porewater from
the voids in the soil.
The rate of consolidation depends on the coefficient of
permeability, k, of the soil.
Thence, it is a time dependent process.
Both processes are aimed to increase the soil strength and to avoid
excessive settlement after construction.
Causes of Settlement
• Compaction
Soil particles are forced into a closer or pack condition
where air is expelled and with the reduction of volume.
• Consolidation
The squeezing out of porewater from the saturated
cohesive soil due to loading.
• Moisture Movement
Occur in shrinkable or expansive clay with high liquid
limit. Clayey soil will show a shrinkage or expansive
condition due to decrease or increase of water volume.
• Loss of Lateral Support
The lateral support is highly important in cases whereby the
site excavation conducted nearby an adjacent building,
perhaps will induced the shift of bearing capacity of the
existing building.
• Effect of Vegetation
Associated with highly plastic clays when draining of water
from the roots of the trees.
The removal of the trees means that more water confined
to the soil, thus create the soil to expand an swelling
occurs.
• Effect of Groundwater Lowering
The water table are lowered due to the pumping of water or
during excavation. Settlement occurs due to the change of
hydrostatic condition
• Effects of temperature changes
Frost (winter)- occur in silts, fine sands, chalky soils
- frost expansion
- provide open/rubber-filled air gap
Heat (oven, boiler etc) - occur in clay
- cause shrinkage
• Effects of seepage and scouring

Occur in sandy soil (fine dry sand/loess)
Scouring : removal of material by surface water & streams
Piping : loss of stability at bottom of excavation due to upward flow
of water
Example of Settlement
COMPACTION & CONSOLIDATION
OF SOILS
CONSOLIDATION and …..

TEST
DATA ANALYSIS
27
Consolidation
LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST
Compressibility definition
The term compressibility is used to indicate one

dimensional volume changes that occur in the
soil deposit when the compressive loading is
applied and the particles rearrange as a reaction.
The compression properties of a fine-grained

soil can be determined directly by performing a
laboratory compression test, frequently called a
consolidation test (oedometer test).
28
Principle of effective stress
 '    u
Change in Change in
effective Change in
total stress pore water
stress pressure
Incremental total stress will be transmitted to

pore water pressure and the soil solids.
Excess pore water pressure, u
The END of primary

u = u1 - uo
consolidation is when
u = 0
H
uo = H w u1
Primary consolidation
Primary consolidation is the change in volume of a fine-
grained soil caused by the expulsion of water from the voids
and the transfer of load from the excess pore water pressure
to the soil particles.
ratio, e
Stage I: Initial
compression
Primary consolidation is
assumed to end at the
Stage II: intersection of the projection of
Void
Primary
consolidation the two straight parts of the
curve.
Stage III:
Secondary
consolidation
Time, t (log scale)

Secondary consolidation
Secondary consolidation is the change in volume of a fine-grained soil

caused by the adjustment of soil fabric after primary consolidation has
been completed. It is a plastic arrangement of soil fabric, usually termed as
creep. The plot of deformation versus log time is linear.
Void ratio, e
Stage I: Initial
The secondary compression compression
index, C is defined as;
e e
C  
log t2  log t1 log  t2 / t1  Stage II:
Primary
consolidation
e
Stage III:
Secondary
consolidation
t1 t2
Time, t (log scale)
Stage I
Stage I – Initial compression,

which caused mostly by
preloading
Stage II – Primary
Stage II
Consolidation, during which
excess pore water pressure
gradually is transferred into
effective stress because of the
expulsion of pore water
Stage III – Secondary
Stage III Consolidation, which occurs
after dissipation of the excess
pore water pressure, when some
deformation of the specimen
takes place because of the
plastic readhustment of soil
fabric. 33
Elastic and plastic deformation
During normal compression :-
Plastic deformation,  p refers to the greater part of the deformation which is due
to the slippage between the soil particles as the soil skeleton rearranges itself to
accommodate higher loads. This component of deformation is irrecoverable or
plastic.
Elastic deformation,  e is taking place along unload and reloading line where
change in stress can be accommodated without the need for the rearrangement of
soil particles. Deformation is primarily due to the distortion of the soil particles
and can be recovered on unloading.
p
 e
Notes: This slide was reproduced from Md. Noor’s Lecture Note. Distortion of particles
Consolidation
Laboratory
Test
CONSOLIDATION TEST
SET-UP
Laboratory consolidation test set up

to determine the compressibility
characteristics of the soil35
Consolidation
Laboratory
Test
CONSOLIDATION APPARATUS
ACCESSORIES
36
Consolidation Testing
Oedometer Testing
• Vertical static load increments are applied at regular time
intervals (e.g. 12, 24, 48 hr.).
• The load is doubled with each increment up to the required
maximum (e.g. 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 kPa).
• During each load stage thickness changes are recorded
against time.
• After full consolidation is reached under the final load, the
loads are removed (in one or several stages - to a low
nominal value close to zero - and the specimen allowed to
swell, after which the specimen is removed and its thickness
and water content determined.
• With a porous stone both above and below the soil
specimen the drainage will be two-way (i.e. an open layer
in which the drainage path length, d = H/2)
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Consolidometer or oedometer
This curve is for a 1. Soil specimen is contained in a cutting ring 760 mm diameter
given load increment. by 20 mm thick.
2. Sandwiched between two porous stone.
3. Typical load increments,  kPa are 0, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400,
800, 400, 200, 100, 50, 25 and 0.
4. When the first load is applied, readings of the dial gauge are
taken at 15, 30 s, 1, 2, 4, 15, 30 min, 1, 2, 4, 24 hour from the
start.
5. After 24 hour, the load is increased and a new set of dial
gauge readings is obtained.
6. This is repeated for a number of load increments and
decrements.
7. Finally the load is removed and the specimen is allowed to
swell and the recovery and mc are measured.
RESULTS FROM THE CONSOLIDATION TEST
Typical plot of e – log  ’ curve
 The upper part of the e-log p is curved
with a flat slope followed by a steeper
linear slope.
 The initial small change in void ratio is
when the total applied pressure is less
than the maximum effective
overburden pressure in the field.
 This can be because of sampling
where the existing effective
overburden pressure is released
e which result in some expansion or the
previous maximum effective past
pressure in its geologic history is still
much higher.
 When the total applied pressure on the
specimen is greater than the
log  p0  p   log p0
maximum effective past pressure, the
rate of change in the void ratio w.r.t.
log p is much greater indicated by a
steeper linear slope.
 This is analogous to the concept of
mobilized shear strength during
unloading and reloading where
This concept of preconsolidation pressure can be verified
whenever the applied deviator stress
in the laboratory by loading the specimen to exceed the
is higher than the previous, the normal
max. overburden pressure, and then unloading and
stress-strain behaviour resumes.
reloading again.
Preconsolidation
Pressure
This lead to ……...
Two basic definitions of clay base on stress history;
1. Normally consolidated, whose present effective

overburden pressure is the maximum pressure
that the soil was subjected to in the past.
2. Overconsolidated, whose present effective

overburden pressure is less than that which the
soil experienced in the past. The maximum
effective past pressure is called the
preconsolidation pressure.
Digital Dial Gauge
Data Logger
OEDOMETER TEST RESULTS
Specimen Changes
eo = Hv / Hs σ = total load/ area

e1 = H1/Hs of specimen
e1 = eo-e1
e2 = e1- ΔH1/Hs
Plot e vs σ’
e e
eO Recompression
Normal Curve
e1
Swelling
' '
’O '1
Void Ratio to Effective Stress Curve Swelling & Recompression

Plot e vs log σ’
void ratio
loading
 v’ increases &
e decreases
unloading
 v’ decreases &
e increases
(swelling)
log  v’
Plot e vs log σ’
void ratio
Cr
1
Cc ~ compression
index
Cr ~ recompression
Cc
index (or swelling
index) 1
Cr
1
log  v’
From oedometer test results:

• If ´0 and ´1 are stresses at the start at end of a
loading stage and e0 and e1 are the corresponding
voids ratios and the soil swells back the ´0 and eF
The compression index is the slope of the
e/log´ curve (NCL)
The swelling index is the slope of the swelling-

recompression line (SRL)
Preconsolidation pressure  p
 p’ is the
maximum
void ratio
vertical effective
stress the soil
element has ever
been subjected to
 p’ log  v’
preconsolidation
tangent projection from h

to bisector
pt of max curvature
= horiz projection from a
= bisector
= tangent at a
= preconsolidation pressure
OCR = ’c /  O’
Preconsolidation pressure  p
• Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple
graphic contruction to determine
preconcolidation pressure
1. By visual observation, establish point a, at

which the e-log σ’ plot has a minimum
radius of curvature
2. Draw a horizontal line ab
3. Draw the line ac tangent at a
4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the
angle bac
5. project the straight-line portion gh to
intersect line ad at f. The abscissa of point f
is the preconsolidation pressure, σ’c
Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv
~ denoted by mv
~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element

per unit increase in stress no
units
V
change in volume

original volume
i.e.,
mv  V

kPa-1 or kPa or MPa
MPa-1
coefficient for volume compressibility
(mv)
compressibility index (Cc).
Cc = e o – e1
log ’1 - log ’o
Amount of consolidation settlement
sC = mv ’ H
sC = CC log( ’/ ’) H
1 O
1 + eO
Consolidation Problem
Example 1
Readings from an oedometer test on a saturated clay :
Applied 0 25 50 100 200 400 800

Stress
(kPa)
Thickness 19.60 19.25 18.98 18.61 18.14 17.68 17.24
(mm)
At the end of the last loading period, all the load has been
removed and the sample is allowed to swell (expand) for
24 hours. In the end the thickness of the sample is
recorded at 17.92 mm and the final water content is
31.8%. Given the specific gravity is 2.66.
Example 1 (…continue)
(a) Calculate the void ratio at the end of each loading stage.
Firstly determine the final void ratio (end of stage).
Sr = 1.0 (Soil in a fully saturated condition)
m = 31.8% and Gs = 2.66
Use, Sr e = mGs
e = mGs
= (0.318) (2.66) = 0.846
(a)
Stage 0 – 800 kPa (Swelling Stage)
Calculate the change in void ratio.
Thickness at 0 kPa = 17.92 mm and e = 0.846
Thickness at 800 kPa = 17.24 mm
e = h (1 + eo)
ho
= (17.92 – 17.24) (1 + 0.846)
17.92
= 0.68 (1.846) = 0.070
17.92
(a)
Before calculating on the next stage, calculate the void
ratio at the 800 kPa stage.
e = 0.846 Void ratio value from the swelling stage, ie. 0 kPa
e = 0.070 e from the 0 kPa – 800 kPa stage
e = e - e NEW e, Void ratio value for the 800 kPa stage
= 0.846 – 0.070
= 0.776
(a) New ‘e’ Value
Stage 800 – 400 kPa
e = h (1 + eo)
ho
= (17.24 – 17.68) (1 + 0.776)
17.24
= - 0.44 (1.776) = - 0.045
17.24
(a)
e = 0.776 Void ratio value from the 800 kPa stage
e = - 0.045 e from the 800 kPa – 400 kPa stage
= 0.776 – ( - 0.045 )
= 0.821
(a) Again,
New ‘e’
Stage 400 – 200 kPa
Value
e = h (1 + eo)
ho
= (17.68 – 18.14) (1 + 0.821)
17.68
= - 0.46 (1.821) = - 0.047
17.68
(a)
e = 0.821` Void ratio value from the 400 kPa stage
e = - 0.047 e from the 400 kPa – 200 kPa stage
= 0.821 – ( - 0.047 )
= 0.868
(a)
Repeat the process for the other stages;
0 kPa – 800 kPa 
800 kPa – 400 kPa 
400 kPa – 200 kPa 
200 kPa – 100 kPa X
100 kPa – 50 kPa X
50 kPa – 25 kPa X
25 kPa – 0 kPa X
(a)
The best way to represent your calculation
is by means of a table.
Make sure to start your calculation from the bottom to

the top.
Refer to the tabulated values next page.

(a)
Data obtained from question
Finish at
Top
Start at
Bottom
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(b) Plot the void ratio against the applied stress.
(c) Determine the coefficient for volume compressibility
(mv) for the stress range 220 kPa – 360 kPa.
Refer to the plotted graph (b).
From the graph;

For ’o = 220 kPa , eo = 0.858
& ’1 = 360 kPa , e1 = 0.825
(b) Plot the void ratio against the applied stress.
e0
e1
’O ’1
(c)
For ’o = 220 kPa , eo = 0.858
& ’1 = 360 kPa , e1 = 0.825
mv = e . 1
’ 1 + eo
= (0.858 – 0.825) 1 x 103

(360 – 220) 1.858
= 0.127 m2/MN
(d) Plot the void ratio against the log applied stress.
(e) Determine value of the compressibility index (Cc).
Refer to the plotted graph (d).
Cc is the slope straight portion in the graph.
From the graph or tabulated data;

For log ’o = log 200 kPa , eo = 0.864
& log ’1 = log 800 kPa , e1 = 0.772
Cc is the slope straight
portion in the graph
eO
e1
Log ’O Log ’1
200 800
(e) From the graph or tabulated data;
For log ’o = log 200 kPa , eo = 0.864

& log ’1 = log 800 kPa , e1 = 0.772
Cc = e o – e1
log ’1 - log ’o
= (0.864 – 0.772)
log 800 – log 200
= 0.153
(f) Obtain the value of pre consolidation pressure (’p)
from the graph plotted in (d).
Using the Casagrande method,
The ’p = 43 kPa

2
1 P
6 4
5 3
Pre consolidation pressure
43
(g) Use the data obtain in (c) and (e) to obtain and
compare the value of ‘consolidation settlement’ for 4 m
thick of clay for an average stress changes between 220 -
360 kPa.
in (c); mv = 0.127 m2/MN
Use this equation;

sC = mv ’ H
= (0.127) (360 – 220) (4) 103
= 71 mm
Example 1 (…continue) An Alternative Method
(g) in (e); CC = 0.153
Use this equation;

sC = CC log(1’/O’) HO
1 + eO
= 0.153 log(360/220) (4) 103
1.858
= 70 mm
Example 2
 The following readings were obtained from an oedometer test on a
specimen of saturated clay. the load being held constant for 24 hours
before the addition of the next increment
Pressure 0 25 50 100 200 400 800 0
(kN/m2)
Sample 17.32 17.20 16.84 16.48 16.18 15.85 15.50 15.85

thickness (mm)
 At the end of test the water content was 30%. Gs = 2.66

 i/calculate and tabulate the void ratio at the end of each pressure stage
 ii/ plot the e – σ’ curve
 iii/determine the values of m v for the stress increments of 100 – 200 kN/m 2
 iv/ calculate the value of consolidation settlement for a 5 m thick of the
above soil under the same stress condition
Example 3
• In a consolidation test, the pressure increment was maintained for
24 hours and the changes in thickness were recorded as follows:
Pressure (kN/m2) 0 50 100 200 400 800 0
Sample thickness (mm) 20 19.65 19.52 19.35 19.15 18.95 19.25
• After 24 hours, the water content was 27%. Gs = 2.65

• i/ calculate and tabulate the void ratio at the end of each pressure
stage and plot the void ratio vs log effective stress using log scale
graph
• ii/ determine the values of Cc (compressibility index) from the
plotted graph
• iii/ calculate the value of consolidation settlement for a 8 m thick
of the above soil for the stress increments of 80 – 200 kN/m2
Determination of cv
• The results of oedometer test can be used to

obtain a value for the coefficient of
consolidation, cv
• The test must be continued to almost
complete consolidation so that degrees of
consolidation and time factors can be
related
• This can be accomplished using either a
square-root-of-time method or log-time
method
DETERMINATION OF CV
Square root of time method
 A plot of deformation against the square

root of time is made for the incremental
loading
 Draw line AB through the early portion

of the curve
 Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15OB.

The abscissa of point D, which is the
intersection of AC and the consolidation
curve, gives the square root of time for
90% consolidation (√t90)
DETERMINATION OF CV
 For 90% consolidation, T90 = 0.848 (table 10.1)
or
Hdr = average longest drainage path during consolidation

Compression ratios
• The true zero for the primary compression is
obtained by projecting the straight portion of
the curve back to the thickness axis at zero
time, point F
• The following ratios are sometimes used to
show the relative amounts of initial, primary
and secondary compression
OF = amount of initial compression
FD = amount of primary compression =
FA/0.9
DG = amount of secondary compression
OG = total amount compression
Compression ratios
• Initial compression ratio,
• Primary compression ratio,
• Secondary compression ratio,

Example 4
CONSOLIDATION PROBLEM
Example 4
CONSOLIDATION PROBLEM
Example 4
Summary
• In this chapter, we’ve discussed the fundamental concepts

and theories for estimating elastic and consolidation
(primary and secondary) settlement.
• Elastic settlement is primarily a function of the size and
rigidity of the foundation, the modulus of elasticity, the
Poisson’s ratio of the soil and the intensity of load on the
foundation.
• Consolidation is a time-dependent process of settlement of
saturated clay layers located below the groundwater table
by extrusion of excess water pressure generated by
application of load on the foundation.
Summary
• In some cases, the actual and predicted maximum settlements agree

remarkably but in many others, the predicted settlements deviate to a
large extend from the actual settlements observed. This may caused by
the following reasons:
- improper evaluation of soil properties
- nonhomogeneity and irregularity of soil profiles
- Error in the evaluation of the net stress increase with depth
• The variation between the predicted and observed time rate of

settlement may also be due to;
- improper evaluation of cv
- presence of irregular sandy seams with the clay layer, which reduces the
length of the maximum drainage path, Hdr

Chapter 4 - 2consolidation

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Chapter 4 - 2consolidation

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ECG303 –BASIC SOIL MECHANICS

WEEK 13 and 14 ~ CHAP. 4

Introduction & Definition

 When a saturated compressible clay layer is

Basic Process & Terminology

• An embankment is built, causing undrained loading,

• Seepage flow occur and pore pressures decrease

• Consolidation takes place, settlement occurs, and

One Dimensional Consolidation

One Dimensional Consolidation

One Dimensional Consolidation

The rate of consolidation for a stratum of clay is

 the extent or thickness of the compressible soil

 the in-place void ratio of the compressible soil

When a saturated soil

’ = 0 ’ > 0

Immediate (t = 0) Slow drainage cause excess pore water

u=0 u=0 u=0 u=0

Diagrams 5, 6 & 7 : Soil fabrics start to orientate and move to a denser

The difference between compaction and consolidation.

• Effects of seepage and scouring

CONSOLIDATION and …..

LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST

The term compressibility is used to indicate one

The compression properties of a fine-grained

Principle of effective stress

Incremental total stress will be transmitted to

The END of primary

Time, t (log scale)

Secondary consolidation is the change in volume of a fine-grained soil

Stage I – Initial compression,

Laboratory consolidation test set up

1. Normally consolidated, whose present effective

2. Overconsolidated, whose present effective

Digital Dial Gauge

eo = Hv / Hs σ = total load/ area

Void Ratio to Effective Stress Curve Swelling & Recompression

From oedometer test results:

The swelling index is the slope of the swelling-

tangent projection from h

= horiz projection from a

1. By visual observation, establish point a, at

Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element

compressibility index (Cc).

Amount of consolidation settlement

Applied 0 25 50 100 200 400 800

Firstly determine the final void ratio (end of stage).

Sr = 1.0 (Soil in a fully saturated condition)

m = 31.8% and Gs = 2.66

e = 0.070 e from the 0 kPa – 800 kPa stage

e = e - e NEW e, Void ratio value for the 800 kPa stage

e = 0.776 Void ratio value from the 800 kPa stage

e = - 0.045 e from the 800 kPa – 400 kPa stage

e = e - e NEW e, Void ratio value for the 400 kPa stage

e = 0.821` Void ratio value from the 400 kPa stage

e = - 0.047 e from the 400 kPa – 200 kPa stage

e = e - e NEW e, Void ratio value for the 200 kPa stage

Make sure to start your calculation from the bottom to

Refer to the tabulated values next page.

Refer to the plotted graph (b).

From the graph;

= (0.858 – 0.825) 1 x 103