Introduction About Nano Materials

N.Kishorekumar
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Dept
AITS.
 LOCALIZED PARTICLES
• Donors, Acceptors, and Deep Traps
 Donors
• When a type V atom such as P, As, or Sb, which has five electrons in
its outer or valence electron shell, is a substitutional impurity in Si it
uses four of these electrons to satisfy the valence requirements of the
four nearest-neighbor silicons, and the one remaining electron
remains weakly bound. The atom easily donates or passes on this
electron to the conduction band, so it is called a donor, and the
electron is called a donor electron.
 METAL NANOCLUSTERS

• NANO CLUSTER SYNTHESIS & MAGIC NUMBERS

• THEORETICAL MODELING OF NANAOPARTICLES
• STRUCTURES
• REATIVITY
• MAGNETIC CLUSTERS
• BULK TO NANOTRANSITION
 INTRODUCTION
• Nanoclusters are particle that range in size
from a few atoms to several thousand atoms.
• Nanoclusters—near monodispersed particles
that are generally less than 10 nm 100 A° . in
diameter
• Their high fraction of surface atoms give them
properties different from bulk material
properties.
• Different elements form different bonds and
different nanocluster structures.
• These bonds and structures contribute to their Distinction between molecules,
unique properties. nanoparticles and bulk according to
the number of atoms in cluster
NANO CLUSTER SYNTHESIS & MAGIC NUMBERS SYNTHESIS

• The metal nanoclusters are made using

the laser vaporization technique.
• This technique involves focusing a laser
beam onto a metal sample.
• Metal atoms evaporate and are cooled
with a flow of inert gas.
• As they cool the atoms combine into
nanoclusters of varying sizes.
• They are then expanded through a
nozzle into a vacuum to further cool
them.
• Spectrometer gives information about
the cluster formed. Apparatus to make nanoparticles by
laser induced evaporation of atoms from
the surface of metal
 MAGIC NUMBERS
• ELECTRONIC MAGIC NUMBER Ionization potential
• It is the energy that is necessary to remove the
outer electron from the atom.
• Maximum ionization potential occurs for the rare
gases,because their outer orbital is completely
filled.
• Peaks are observed at clusters having two and
eight atoms.
• These numbers are referred as electronic magic
number.
• STRUCTURAL MAGIC NUMBER
• For larger clusters the stability is determined by
structure and magic number is called as Structural
Magic Number. Plot of ionization potential verses (a)Atomic
number (b) Number of atom in cluster
 THEORETICAL MODELING OF NANAOPARTICLES

JELLIUM MODEL
• It envisions cluster as a large atom.
• Positive nuclear charge of each
Cluster is assume to be uniformly
distributed over a sphere the size of
the cluster.
• Interaction of electron with positive
sphere is described as a spherically
symmetric potential well.
• Energy levels can be obtained by
solving Schrodinger equation.
A comparison of energy levels of
hydrogen atom and Jellium model of
clusters
• Orbital calculation based on the
density functional method predict
that the Icosahedral form has lower
energy than other forms.
• In late 1970s and early 198s, G.D.
Stien determine the structure of BiN,
PbN, and AgN nanoparticles.
• Deviation from FCC were observed
for cluster smaller than 8 nm in
diameter.
Some calculated structure of small
Boron nanoparticles
 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
• DENSITY OF STATES: it refers to the no of
energy levels in a given interval of energy.
• Moving from bulk to small metal clusters
density of states changes dramatically.
• The continuous density of states in band Illustration of how energy levels of metal
changes when no. of atoms of the material is reduced
is replaced by a set of discrete energy
levels.
• Clusters of different sizes will have
different electronic structures, and
different energy level separations.

Density functional calculation of excited

energy levels of B6, B8, & B12 nanoparticles.
 REACTIVITY
• The ability of cluster to react with any
species should depends on cluster size.
• Reactivity with various gases can be
studied by the synthesis apparatus by
introducing gases such as oxygen into the Gas introduction.
region of the cluster beam.

Mass spectrum of Al nanoparticles before (left) and after (right) exposer to oxygen gas
• shows that the reaction rate of
iron with hydrogen is as a
function of size of the iron
particles.
• A group of Oksaka National
Research institute in Japan
discovered that high catalytic
activity is observed to switch on
for Gold nanoparticles smaller
then 3-5 nm, where the structure
is icosahedral instead of bulk Reaction rate of hydrogen gas with iron nanoparticles versus
the particle size.
arrangement.
 MAGNETIC CLUSTERS

• Magnetic moments arise in atoms from

the net electron spin z component of the
electron angular momentum.
• Hund’s rule states that electrons tend to fill
their orbitals in such a way as to maximize
their net spin.
• The total magnetic moment of the atom
comes from the coupling of the electronic
spin with the z-angular momentum.
• When these atoms combine to form
nanoclusters, the atomic magnetic
moments can align to form a net magnetic
moment for the cluster.
Formation of net magnetic moment
in a metal nanoclusters.
 BULK TO NANOTRANSTION

• At what number of atoms does a cluster assume the property of

the bulk material ?
• In a cluster less than 100 atoms the amount of energy needed to ionize it, or to
remove an electron from it is different from the Work function.
• Gold nanocluster having 1000 atoms or more is having same melting point as the
bulk Gold.
• Average separation of Copper atoms in a Copper cluster approaches the value of
the bulk material when cluster have 100 atoms or more.
• In general it appears that different properties of cluster reaches the
characteristics value of solids at different cluster sizes.
• The size of the cluster where the transition to bulk behavior occurs appear to
depend on the property being measured.
• The physical, chemical and electronic properties of nanoclusters depends
strongly on the number and kind of atoms that makes the cluster.
• Reactivity, stability and magnetic behavior depends on particle size.
• In some instances entirely new behavior which is not seen in the bulk has
been observed in nanoclusters.
• Besides providing new research challenges for scientists to understand
the new behavior, the results have enormous
• potential for application, allowing the design of properties by control of
particle size
• It is clear that nanoscale material can form the basis of new class of
automatically engineered materials.
 STRUCTURES
GEOMETRICAL STRUCTURE
• Crystal structure of large nanoparticles have
same structure with somewhat different
lattice as bulk.
• e.g.
• 80 nm aluminum has FCC unit cell as bulk
aluminum have.
• Small particles having diameter <5 nm may
have different structure.
• e.g. (a) the unit cell of bulk aluminum (b) three
• Gold nanoparticles of 3-5 nm have an possible structure of Aluminum FCC, HCP,
icosahedral structure rather than the bulk FCC ICOS
METHODS OF SYNTHESIS
DRY-etching
Sol-gel method
 SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES
• Optical Properties
• Photofragmentation
• Coulombic Explosion
Photofragmentation
Coulomb explosion
RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTERS
• Inert-Gas Clusters
• Superfluid Clusters
• Molecular Clusters
 Superfluid Clusters

Illustration of how fermions and bosons distribute over the

energy levels of a system at high and low temperature.
 Molecular Clusters

A hydrogen-bonded cluster of five water molecules. The large

spheres are oxygen, and the small spheres are hydrogen atoms
 Unit II

PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
STRENGTH OF NANO CRYSTALLINE SIC
• The mechanical properties like flexural strength and the fracture toughness have
been studied on a sintered silicon carbide, which is prepared by the pressureless
sintering route from the nano crystalline silicon carbide particles of an Acheson
type α-SiC that is processed by high energy attrition grinding route.
• The average flexural strength is found to be 390 MPa and the average fracture
toughness is found to be 4.3 MPa . m1/2
• Usually, the dense silicon carbide materials have lower strength compared to
silicon nitride materials. The latter experience a degradation of strength at 1200°C
- 1300°C, while silicon carbide materials do not show any decrease of strength up
to 1500°C.
• Weibull statistics as it is typical for many other ceramic materials
Most of earlier work is based on a 4-point bending test. Depending on the
manufacturer and the type of silicon carbide, the average room temperature strength
varies between 350 and 550 MPa. For such cases, the Weibull modulus which is a
measure of the 'dispersion' in strength varies between 6 and 15 depending on the
strength of the ceramic materials.
• Schwetz and Lipp also studied the effect of the dopants on the flexural
strength. They observed that the materials doped with aluminium had a higher
strength than that doped with boron, and with the improvement in the processing
parameters, it would be as strong as the 'hot-pressed' SiC materials. They also
found that the production of the materials with ultrafine grains occurred in a very
narrow range of sintering temperature (2050-2075°C). The exaggerated grain
growth at temperatures above 2075°C was the cause of the reduction in strength of
boron doped materials. The materials sintered with aluminium nitride, which acted
as a grain growth inhibitor, showed a higher strength
• The Weibull distribution is one of the most widely used lifetime distributions in
reliability engineering. It is a versatile distribution that can take on the
characteristics of other types of distributions, based on the value of the shape
parameter
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Comparison of Mechanical Data of α- and β-SiC
• Flexural Strength of α-SiC
• Microstructure
Comparison of Mechanical Data of α- and β-SiC

• The flexural strength of both α- and β-silicon carbides, which are

doped with boron carbide + carbon and aluminium nitride + carbon,
has been studied. For boron carbide doping, the flexural strength of
α- and β-silicon carbides are found to be 390 and 330 MPa
respectively.
 Flexural Strength of α-SiC

SEM photo of etched and polished surface of a dense  -

silicon carbide
(dopant : 0.5 wt% boron carbide + 1 wt% carbon)
 Paramagnetic
• A material is considered paramagnetic due to the alignment of the permanent dipoles arising out of m unpaired
electrons in an external magnetic field H. The alignment of ‘paramagnetic ions’ is strongly opposed by the
random thermal vibrations, i.e. quantized phonons, which give rise to the misalignment of these magnetic
dipoles. This particular paramagnetic effect is very small but ‘positive'. Here, it is usually possible to be detected
only if no ‘spontaneous’ alignment of the magnetic dipoles, i.e. no ferromagnetic interaction of the unpaired
electrons, takes place in the material.
• The paramagnetic susceptibility is given as :
• χP ≈ +10–5 to +10–6 > 0;
• χP = C/T ,
• which is the famous ‘Curie Law’. Also, the magnetization can be expressed as :
• M = m.n.μs
 SUPER-PARAMAGNETISM
• In the above description, the grain size of different ferrites is in the micron range, i.e. from about
1000 nm to 5000 nm, so that each grain can be considered as small magnet. Due to the various
alignments of these small magnets and depending on various other parameters, an important
hysteresis parameter like the coercive field (i.e. the field needed to demagnetize it) is decided
which gives insight and an important indication for many applications. For many other delicate
applications like sensors and medical imaging, a very fine grained magnetic particles are needed.
 MAGNETIZATION DATA OF NANO PARTICLES
OF MAGNETITE
• adequate description has been given on the
theoretical side of the magnetization in terms of
‘saturation magnetization’ (MS) and ‘volume’ (V) of
the super-paramagnetic particles of magnetite,
which is an interesting 'entity' for a detailed study. It
is interesting since such glass-ceramic material with
ultra-fine particles of magnetite could be used as
many ‘magnetic devices’, such as 'highdensity
magnetic storage of information’ in hard disc of the
computers, where a new horizon is just unfolding
(see later) for terabyte range. It has also applications
in magnetic imaging, etc.
 ESR Spectroscopy
• The theory of ESR The measurements of ESR was carried out at 300°K in a Brucker spectrometer
operating in X-band frequency (9.2 GHz), the magnetic field modulation frequency was 18 KHz. All
the low temperature measurement were carried out using Varian Associate spectrometer at X-
band frequency and the modulation frequency was 100 KHz. All precautions were taken to reduce
the noise level to a minimum with a proper amplification and tuning to get the best possible
signals. The ESR spectra were recorded in a standard plotter. Since the total independent on the
number of paramagnetic ions per unit volume, the weight of each sample was measured before
inserting through a special quartz tube in the microwave cavity. The typical ESR spectra, taken at
300°K, for some of the smples are shown in Figure. The peak-to-peak intensity (I), line-width (ΔH)
and the integrated intensity (I × ΔH2) for the g = 2.0 resonance are shown in Table, along with the
respective weight of the samples. The spectra for the blank glass and 600 samples show both the
resonances at g = 4.3 and g = 2.0 respectively, which are usually observed for paramagnetic
materials containing Fe3+ ions.tensity of ESR is
The ESR Data for Nano Particles of Magnetite.
 SMALL ANGLE NEUTRON SCATTERING
• Preamble
• A multi-component basalt glass is a unique system for studying the nucleation and crystallization
behaviour of nano-sized magnetite particles, whose growth can be controlled to precipitate even
4 nm - 5 nm size crystallites. The most sensitive technique for such a study is ‘Small Angle
Neutron Scattering’ (SANS), which allows the determination of small nano-sized crystallites as a
function of time at a given temperature, i.e. dynamic study of crystallization behaviour on
nucleated samples at suitably designed temperatures to facilitate their growth.
• The inter-particle interference effects show a pronounced maximum in the SANS spectra at the
growth temperature of 710°C for different nucleated samples. The radius of such particles was
estimated within the limits of Guinier approximation from the slope of the linear plots of I(Q) vs.
Q2. The number density of nano-sized particles decreases with the time of growth and saturates
at longer time. This particular behaviour is interpreted as due to the redissolution of smaller nano
particles, as the larger ones (still nano-sized) continue to grow with the stabilized number density
in the Ostwald ripening or coarsening stage. The process of redissolution of the nano-sized
particles during the growth of the stable nuclei shows how to generate nano-sized grains within a
glass matrix and the power of SANS to detec them in a dynamic on-line study.
 Electron Microscope
• An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to
illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image.
• Electron microscopes have much greater resolving power than light
microscopes and can obtain much higher magnifications.
• Some electron microscopes can magnify specimens up to 2 million
times, while the best light microscopes are limited to magnifications of
2000 times.
• Both electron and light microscopes have resolution limitations,
imposed by their wavelength.
• The greater resolution and magnification of the electron microscope is
due to the wavelength of an electron, its de Broglie wavelength, being
much smaller than that of a light photon, electromagnetic radiation.
 How electron microscopes work
• If you've ever used an ordinary microscope, you'll know the basic idea is simple. There's a light at the bottom
that shines upward through a thin slice of the specimen. You look through an eyepiece and a powerful lens to
see a considerably magnified image of the specimen (typically 10–200 times bigger). So there are essentially
four important parts to an ordinary microscope:
• The source of light.
• The specimen.
• The lenses that makes the specimen seem bigger.
• The magnified image of the specimen that you see.
In an electron microscope, these four things are slightly different.
• The light source is replaced by a beam of very fast moving electrons.
• The specimen usually has to be specially prepared and held inside a vacuum chamber from which the air has
been pumped out (because electrons do not travel very far in air).
• The lenses are replaced by a series of coil-shaped electromagnets through which the electron beam travels. In
an ordinary microscope, the glass lenses bend (or refract) the light beams passing through them to produce
magnification. In an electron microscope, the coils bend the electron beams the same way.
• The image is formed as a photograph (called an electron micrograph) or as an image on a TV screen.
• That's the basic, general idea of an electron microscope. But there are actually quite a few different types of
electron microscopes and they all work in different ways. The three most familiar types are called
transmission electron microscopes (TEMs), scanning electron microscopes (SEMs), and scanning tunneling
microscopes (STMs).
 Electron Microscope
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
• scanning electron microscope (SEM)
• Scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs).
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
• A TEM has a lot in common with an ordinary optical microscope.
• You have to prepare a thin slice of the specimen quite carefully (it's a fairly
laborious process) and sit it in a vacuum chamber in the middle of the
machine.
• When you've done that, you fire an electron beam down through the
specimen from a giant electron gun at the top.
• The gun uses electromagnetic coils and high voltages (typically from 50,000
to several million volts) to accelerate the electrons to very high speeds.
• wave-particle duality, electrons (which we normally think of as particles)
can behave like waves (just as waves of light can behave like particles).
• The faster they travel, the smaller the waves they form and the more detailed
the images they show up. Having reached top speed, the electrons zoom
through the specimen and out the other side, where more coils focus them to
form an image on screen (for immediate viewing) or on a photographic plate
(for making a permanent record of the image).
• TEMs are the most powerful electron microscopes: we can use them to see
things just 1 nanometer in size, so they effectively magnify by a million
times or more.
 How a transmission electron microscope (TEM) works
• A transmission electron microscope fires a beam of electrons through a
specimen to produce a magnified image of an object.
• A high-voltage electricity supply powers the cathode.
• The cathode is a heated filament, a bit like the electron gun in an old-
fashioned cathode-ray tube (CRT) TV. It generates a beam of electrons that
works in an analogous way to the beam of light in an optical microscope.
• An electromagnetic coil (the first lens) concentrates the electrons into a more
powerful beam.
• Another electromagnetic coil (the second lens) focuses the beam onto a
certain part of the specimen.
• The specimen sits on a copper grid in the middle of the main microscope tube.
The beam passes through the specimen and "picks up" an image of it.
• The projector lens (the third lens) magnifies the image.
• The image becomes visible when the electron beam hits a fluorescent screen
at the base of the machine. This is analogous to the phosphor screen at the
front of an old-fashioned TV .
• The image can be viewed directly (through a viewing portal), through
binoculars at the side, or on a TV monitor attached to an image intensifier
(which makes weak images easier to see).
 Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
• Most of the funky electron microscope images you see in books—
things like wasps holding microchips in their mouths—are not
made by TEMs but by scanning electron microscopes (SEMs),
which are designed to make images of the surfaces of tiny objects.
Just as in a TEM, the top of a SEM is a powerful electron gun that
shoots an electron beam down at the specimen.
• A series of electromagnetic coils pull the beam back and forth,
scanning it slowly and systematically across the specimen's
surface. Instead of traveling through the specimen, the electron
beam effectively bounces straight off it.
• The electrons that are reflected off the specimen (known as
secondary electrons) are directed at a screen, similar to a cathode-
ray TV screen, where they create a TV-like picture. SEMs are
generally about 10 times less powerful than TEMs (so we can use
them to see things about 10 nanometers in size).
• On the plus side, they produce very sharp, 3D images (compared to
the flat images produced by TEMs) and their specimens need less
preparation.
 How a scanning electron microscope (SEM) works
• A scanning electron microscope scans a beam of electrons over a specimen
to produce a magnified image of an object. That's completely different from a
TEM, where the beam of electrons goes right through the specimen.
• Electrons are fired into the machine.
• The main part of the machine (where the object is scanned) is contained
within a sealed vacuum chamber because precise electron beams can't travel
effectively through air.
• A positively charged electrode (anode) attracts the electrons and accelerates
them into an energetic beam.
• An electromagnetic coil brings the electron beam to a very precise focus,
much like a lens.
• Another coil, lower down, steers the electron beam from side to side.
• The beam systematically scans across the object being viewed.
• Electrons from the beam hit the surface of the object and bounce off it.
• A detector registers these scattered electrons and turns them into a picture.
• A hugely magnified image of the object is displayed on a TV screen.
 Scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs)
• Among the newest electron microscopes, STMs were invented by Gerd Binnig
and Heinrich Rohrer in 1981. Unlike TEMs, which produce images of the
insides of materials, and SEMs, which show up 3D surfaces, STMs are designed
to make detailed images of the atoms or molecules on the surface of something
like a crystal.
• They work differently to TEMs and SEMs too: they have an extremely sharp
metallic probe that scans back and forth across the surface of the specimen. As it
does so, electrons try to wriggle out of the specimen and jump across the gap,
into the probe, by an unusual phenomenon called "tunneling".
• The closer the probe is to the surface, the easier it is for electrons to tunnel into
it, the more electrons escape, and the greater the tunneling current.
• The microscope constantly moves the probe up or down by tiny amounts to keep
the tunneling current constant. By recording how much the probe has to move, it
effectively measures the peaks and troughs of the specimen's surface.
• A computer turns this information into a map of the specimen that shows up its
detailed atomic structure. One big drawback of ordinary electron microscopes is
that they produce amazing detail using high-energy beams of electrons, which
tend to damage the objects they're imaging.
• STMs avoid this problem by using much lower energies.
 Scanned-Probe Microscopy
• First scanning probe microscope invented in 1981by Binning and
Roher ,for which they received the Nobel prize.
• The family of SPM uses no lenses ,but rather a probe that interacts
with the sample surface.
• Simple design.
• Low cost .
• Easy to handle
• Automatically resolves images
Basic principles of SPM.
 SPM
For the techniques to provide
information on the surface
structure at the atomic level
• The position of the tip with respect to the surface must
be very accurately controlled (to within about 0.1 Å)
by moving either the surface or the tip.
• It is possible to accurately control the relative
positions of tip and surface by ensuring good
vibrational isolation of the microscope and using
sensitive piezoelectric positioning devices.
• the tip must be very sharp -ideally terminating in just
a single atom at its closest point of approach to the
surface.
 X-Ray Diffraction
• X-ray diffraction (XRD) is an effective
method for determining the crystal
structure of materials. It detects
crystalline materials having crystal
domains greater than 3-5 nm. It is used
to characterize bulk crystal structure and
chemical phase composition.

• X-ray is a form of electromagnetic

radiation having range of wavelength
from 0.01-0.7 nm which is comparable
with the spacings between lattice
planes in the crystal. Spacing between
atoms in metals ranges from 0.2-0.3 nm.
When an incident beam of X-rays
interacts with the target atom, X-ray
photons are scattered in different
directions
 Working principle and Instrumentation
• The instrument is called an X-ray diffractometer. In the
diffractometer, an X-ray beam of a single wavelength is
used to examine the specimens. By continuously
changing the incident angle of the X-ray beam, a
spectrum of diffraction intensity versus the angle
between incident and diffraction beam is recorded.
The main components of diffractometer are
• X-ray Tube: the source of X Rays.
• Incident-beam optics: to condition the X-ray beam
before it hits the sample
• Goniometer: the platform that holds and moves the
sample, optics, detector, and/or tube
• Sample holder
• Receiving-side optics: to condition the X-ray beam after
it has encountered the sample
• Detector: to count the number of X Rays scattered by
the sample
 Bragg's law
• The X-ray beams incident on a crystalline solid will be diffracted by the crystallographic
planes. Bragg's law is a simple model explaining the conditions required for diffraction.
 Optical Microscope
• The optical microscope is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small
samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest.
• Optical configurations
There are two basic configurations of optical microscope in use, The simple (one lens) and
compound (many lenses).
• Simple optical microscope
• A simple microscope is a microscope that uses only one lens for magnification, and is the original light microscope. Van
Leeuwenhoek's microscopes consisted of a single, small, convex lens mounted on a plate with a mechanism to hold the
material to be examined (the sample or specimen). Demonstrations by British microscopist Brian J. Ford have produced
surprisingly detailed images from such basic instruments. The use of a single, convex lens to magnify objects for viewing is
found today only in the magnifying glass, the hand-lens, and the loup.
• Compound optical microscope
• The compound microscope uses a set of many lenses in order to maximize magnification. The diagram below shows
a compound microscope. In its simplest form—as used by Robert Hooke, for example—the compound microscope would
have a single glass lens of short focal length for the objective, and another single glass lens for the eyepiece or ocular.
Modern microscopes of this kind are usually more complex, with multiple lens components in both objective and eyepiece
assemblies. These multi-component lenses are designed to reduce aberrations, particularly chromatic
aberration and spherical aberration. In modern microscopes the mirror is replaced by a lamp unit providing stable,
controllable illumination.
 Compound optical microscope
• The microscope pictured above is referred to as a compound light
microscope. The term light refers to the method by which light transmits
the image to your eye. Compound deals with the microscope having
more than one lens. Microscope is the combination of two words;
"micro" meaning small and "scope" meaning view.
• Early microscopes, like Leeuwenhoek's, were called simple because they
only had one lens. Simple scopes work like magnifying glasses that you
have seen and/or used. These early microscopes had limitations to the
amount of magnification no matter how they were constructed.
• The creation of the compound microscope by the Janssens helped to
advance the field of microbiology light years ahead of where it had been
only just a few years earlier. The Janssens added a second lens to
magnify the image of the primary (or first) lens.
• Simple light microscopes of the past could magnify an object to 266X as
in the case of Leeuwenhoek's microscope. Modern compound light
microscopes, under optimal conditions, can magnify an object from
1000X to 2000X (times) the specimens original diameter.
 Simple optical microscope
• simple microscope uses a lens or set of lenses
to enlarge an object through angular
magnification alone, giving the viewer an
erect enlarged virtual image.The use of a
single convex lens or groups of lenses are
found in simple magnification devices such as
the magnifying glass, loupes, and eyepieces
for telescopes and microscopes.