2.E.

1 Development

Timing and coordination of specific events

are necessary for the normal development of
an organism, and these events are
regulated by a variety of mechanisms.
The determination of different cell types (cell
fates) precedes differentiation and involves the
expression of genes for tissue-specific proteins.
Tissue-specific proteins enable differentiated
cells to carry out specific tasks.
 Cell differentiation follows determination
as the cell continues on a specific
developmental path. Differentiation results
in cell types such as nerve cells, blood cells,
and muscle cells.
http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol114/Chap11/Chapter_11.html
A single-celled zygote can develop into a
multicellular adult organism that contains
hundreds of different cell types.
Totipotent cells are stem cells that can form
all the cell types in a body, plus placental
cells. Embryonic cells within the first couple
of cell divisions after fertilization are the
only cells that are totipotent.
Pluripotent cells can give rise to all of
the cell types that make up the body;
embryonic stem cells are considered
pluripotent.
The transformation from a zygote into an
organism results from three interrelated
processes:

• Cell division: the zygote gives rise to a large number

of cells through a succession of mitotic cell divisions
• Cell differentiation: cells become specialized in
structure and function
• Morphogenesis: the processes that give shape to
the organism and its various parts
Genomic Equivalence: Nearly all the cells of an
organism have the same genome. Cells
differentiate through differential gene
expression.
Observable cell differentiation results
from the expression of genes for
tissue-specific proteins.
Hierarchy of Gene Activity in Early Drosophila Development

Maternal effect genes (egg-polarity genes)

Gap genes

Segmentation genes
Pair-rule genes of the embryo

Segment polarity genes

Homeotic genes of the embryo

Other genes of the embryo

 Regulation of transcription factors during
development results in sequential gene expression.
Transcription factors are proteins that bind to
specific DNA sequences, thereby controlling the flow
of genetic information from DNA to mRNA.
 Cell signaling helps direct daughter cells
down the appropriate pathways, a process
called induction. Cells induce neighboring
cells to differentiate.

2 Posterior
1
Anterior 4 Signal
3 Receptor protein
EMBRYO
3
4

Signal

Anterior Posterior
daughter daughter
cell of 3 cell of 3

Will go on to Will go on to
form muscle form adult
and gonads intestine
During induction, signal molecules from
embryonic cells cause transcriptional
changes in nearby target cells.

Early embryo
(32 cells)

Signal
NUCLEUS transduction
pathway

Signal
receptor

Signal
molecule
(inducer)
 An inducing signal produced by one cell in
the embryo can initiate a chain of inductions
that results in the formation of a particular
organ.
 Homeotic genes are involved in
developmental patterns and sequences.
 Hox genes are a group of
related homeotic genes that control
the body plan of the embryo.
Pattern formation in animals and plants results
from similar genetic and cellular mechanisms.
Pattern formation is the development of a
spatial organization of tissues and organs.
• Occurs continually in plants
• Is mostly limited to embryos and juveniles in
animals
 An identical or Adult
fruit fly

very similar Fruit fly embryo

nucleotide
(10 hours)

Fly

sequence has
chromosome

been discovered
Mouse
chromosomes

in the homeotic Mouse embryo

genes of both
(12 days)

vertebrates and
invertebrates. Adult mouse
 Embryonic induction in development
results in the correct timing of events.
Temperature and the availability of water
determine seed germination in most
plants.
Genetic mutations can result in
abnormal development.

Snake with one

limb.
Genetic transplantation experiments support the link
between gene expression and normal development.
 In nuclear transplantation, the nucleus of
an unfertilized egg cell or zygote is replaced
with the nucleus of a differentiated cell.
Experiments with frog embryos have shown that a
transplanted nucleus can often support normal
development of the egg.

Frog embryo Frog egg cell Frog tadpole

Fully differ-
Less differ- entiated
entiated cell (intestinal) cell

Donor
Enucleated
Donor nucleus
egg cell
nucleus trans-
trans- planted
planted

Most develop <2% develop

into tadpoles into tadpoles
In 1997, Scottish researchers cloned a lamb
from an adult sheep by nuclear
transplantation.

Dolly the Sheep

Reproductive Cloning
“Copy Cat” was the first cat ever cloned.
In most nuclear transplantation studies, few cloned
embryos develop normally.
Genetic regulation by microRNAs plays an
important role in the development of
organisms and the control of cellular
functions.
 MicroRNA (miRNA) are a small, non-coding
RNA molecules that function in post-
transcriptional regulation of gene expression. They
generally bind to their target mRNAs and repress
protein synthesis by destabilizing the mRNA.
Programmed cell death (apoptosis) plays a role
in the normal development and differentiation.
Cell signaling is involved in programmed cell
death.
 Apoptosis plays a critical role in the sculpting of
digits in vertebrate limbs. The death of the cells
that would otherwise form inter-digital webbing
enables individual fingers and toes to be formed.

Example: Morphogenesis of fingers and toes

As early as the four-cell stage in
C. elegans, cell signaling helps
direct daughter cells down the
appropriate pathways. Induction Zygote

Time after fertilization (hours)

0 First cell division
is also critical later in nematode Nervous
system, Musculature, Outer skin,
nervous system
Germ line
(future
gonads

development as the embryo

outer
skin, mus- gametes)
culature Musculature

passes through three larval 10 Hatching

stages prior to becoming an Intestine

adult. A protein in the outer Intestine

mitochondrial membrane serves

Eggs Vulva

as a master regulator of ANTERIOR

1.2 mm
POSTERIOR

apoptosis .

Example: Development in the nematode

C. elegans
 Floral meristems contain three
cell types that affect flower
development.

Carpel
Stamen
Petal

L1
Cell L2
layers L3

Sepal

Floral meristem Tomato flower

Example: Flower development

 Learning Objectives:
LO 2.31 The student can connect concepts in and across domains to show that
timing and coordination of specific events are necessary for normal development
in an organism and that these events are regulated by multiple mechanisms.
[See SP 7.2]
LO 2.32 The student is able to use a graph or diagram to analyze situations or solve
problems (quantitatively or qualitatively) that involve timing and coordination of
events necessary for normal development in an organism. [See SP 1.4]
LO 2.33 The student is able to justify scientific claims with scientific evidence to
show that timing and coordination of several events are necessary for normal
development in an organism and that these events are regulated by multiple
mechanisms. [See SP 6.1]
LO 2.34 The student is able to describe the role of programmed cell death in
development and differentiation, the reuse of molecules, and the maintenance
of dynamic homeostasis. [See SP 7.1]