ECM 524: Management of

Construction Plant & Equipment

Presented by
Dr. Er. Laxman Poudel, MBA
Visiting Professor
Lumbini Engineering College
14th January, 2016
Course Objectives

 The objectives of this course is to enable the students to

make appropriate choice of various equipments,
construction Plant by considering their pros and cons &
related safety measures.
Main-topics
1. Introduction to Construction Plant & Equipment
2. Review of familiarization with construction plant
3. Classification of construction equipment
4. Selection of Construction plant and equipment
5. Monitoring & controlling of equipment operation
6. Cost of equipment
7. Life of Equipment
8. Plant hiring
9. Plant Maintenance
10. Equipment safety
11. Estimating production rates of some equipment
1. Introduction to construction plant & equipment

 Construction is a process of making/ build of structure

for development of mankind.
 The process of construction involves materials in their
solid, liquid and gas forms handled and put together by
persons.
 Tools are used generally held in hand like hammer, saw,
file etc. use for easy and comfortable.
 Different categories of tools eg. cleaning, cutting,
abrasive, garden, hand tools, machine tools, metal
working tools, wood working, plumbers, masonries tools
etc
Construction Plant and Equipment
 Plant is stationary, i.e. factory

 Equipment is combination of moving & stationary parts.

 Now, work is done by machine, fully mechanized system

to be developed.

 That makes high efficiency, cost effective, less labor

problem etc
 Cont….
 Machine is an apparatus consisting of interrelated parts
with separate functions.
 Machine may be defined as an assembly of
interconnected components arranged to transmit or
modify force in order to perform useful work.
 In construction industry alone there are different types of
machine used like bull dozers, aggregate production units
etc
 Earth moving equipment like dozers, loaders, trucks,
compaction equipment like rollers, tampers etc and
lifting equipment like cranes are the examples of
equipments.
 Cont…
 Construction industries uses different types of equipments
for earth works, transportation, concrete production and
handling road work, irrigation work, lifting work demolition
work etc
 Different types of equipment like construction, safety,
laboratory, hiking, sports, photographic, medical, robotics,
electronic, hotel, bakery, kitchen equipment etc.
 Plants are the assembly of many equipment and moving
parts of different functions and capacity.
 Different plant like gas plant, brick moving pant, block
making, diesel, thermal power, hydro power, concrete
batching and making plant etc
 Here we will take plant, machine and equipment as
synonymous.
Need for mechanization
S. Advantages Disadvantages
N

1 Ability to carryout work beyond the limits of High initial investment on equipment
human power

2 Timely completion of work Higher per unit cost for small projects

3 Improvement of the quality of work Difficulties encountered in supervision

& control of work

4 Lower cost of carrying out tasks Use of foreign exchange to buy

equipment
5 Ease of supervision Unemployment of labor

6 Ease of planning as the outputs can be Difficulty in operation and maintenance

predicted more accurately of equipment
Why plant management?
 Construction means big and large in nature so has to complete
in time by using machineries.
 For Production enhancement, need of modern plant &
equipment
 Due to labor problem and management
 To reduce overhead cost
 For economical point of views
 To manage lead time/availability
 Equipment are very expensive.
 For space requirement and management
Equipment Selection and Layout
 Equipment selection is based on, Which equipment
 Who will responsible for this.
 When it has to be selected
 How big, capacity
 Planning process
 Carefully selected based on equipment performance
 M/C combination may be needed.
 Find availability/serviceability/service & maintenance/ lowest
cost
 Select as per lowest unit cost
Plant/equipment layout
 It is the most effective physical arrangement, either existing or in plans of plant
facilities i.e. arrangement of M/C, processing equipment and service.

 It is the allocation of space and the arrangement of equipment in such a

manner that over all operating cost minimized.

 Plant layout is planning the path each component/part of the product is to

follow through the plant, coordinating the path of the various parts so that the
manufacturing processes may be carried out in the most economical manner.

 it is placing the right equipment, coupled with right place, to permit the
processing of a product unit in the most effective manner, through the shortest
possible distance and in the shortest possible time.
Need of plant layout
 There are design changes in the product.

 There is an expansion of the enterprises.

 There is proposed variation in the size of the department.

 Some new product is to be added to the existing line

 Some new department is to be added to the enterprises

 A new plant is to be set up.

Importance of plant layout
 Weight, volume or mobility of the product

 Complexity of the final product

 The length of the process in relation to handling time

 The extent to which the process tends towards mass

production
Principle of plant layout

 Principle of overall integration

 Principle of minimum distance

 Principle of flow

 Principle of cubic space utilization

 Principle of satisfaction and safety

 Principle of flexibility
Factors affecting plant layout
 Man factor

 Material factor

 Machinery factor

 Movement factor

 Waiting factor

 Service factor

 Building factor

 Flexible factor
2. Familiarization with construction plant
a) Earth moving equipment for excavation like excavators,
Dozers, Loaders, Backhoes, Graders, air compressors etc
b) Transportation equipment for carrying like Railway
wagons, Dump trucks or Trippers, flat bed trucks, mini
dumpers, loaders, Backhoe loaders, Bucket conveyers,
screw conveyers etc.
c) Compaction equipment for compaction eg Sheep footed
rollers, grid rollers, padded drum rollers, three wheel
rollers, vibrating rollers, pneumatic rollers, plate
compaction etc
d) Concrete construction equipment, construction of piles
and cassions, crane for lifting, equipment for tunnel
construction, equipment for hydraulic construction,
equipment for highway and pavement construction etc
3. Classification Of Construction Equipment
 Based upon General use of Machines:
1) Land clearing equipment
2) Transportation equipment
3) Excavating equipment
4) Compaction equipment
5) Aggregate production equipment
6) Concrete production and handling equipment
7) Road pavement making machines
8) Lifting equipment winches
9) Foundation construction equipment
10) Power tools and driving machines
Cont…
 Based upon mobility
1) Mobile machines,
2) Semi mobile machines
3) Stationary machines
Based on working process
1) Continuous action machines
2) Intermittent action machines
Based on the source of power
1) Electric motor driven machines
2) I C engine driven machines
Cont….

 The various standards of construction equipments

1) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) of USA
2) JCMA ( Japan construction mechanization association)
3) CIB (International council for building) working
commission:- Also called international council for
research and innovation in building and construction,
is an international organization dedicated to research
and development work in building and construction. It
is a world organization over 5000 institutional
members world wide (http://www.cibworld)
CIB Classification
 Earth moving Machine & Equipment
1) Excavators, Trenchers, Dredgers, Dozers, Scrapers,
Graders, Loaders, Backhoe loaders and Excavators,
Foundation Engineering and Soil compaction Machines and
Equipment
1) Drilling & boring Equipment, Piling equipment, Tampers,
vibratory Compactors
Machine and Equipment for Manufacturing, Transporting
and processing concrete mix, Mortar, Reinforcement
work and form Work
1) Equipment for storage of material, batching and mixing
equipment, Transporting equipment, spreading
equipment, compaction and finishing equipment,
formwork and moulds, Machine and equipment for
reinforcement, pre-stressing equipment etc
Cont……
 Specialized Machines and Equipment for Transport and
handling-: Towing vehicles, tractors, lorries or trucks,
dumpers, trailers and semi trailers, Railway wagons,
Material handling trucks, Un-loaders etc
 Lifting machine and equipment:-
 Specialized machine and equipment for civil Engineering
work
 Machine and equipment for installation, finishing work
and maintenance
 General machine and equipment used in construction
process
 Other construction machine and equipment-: Grouting
equipment, static-Scaffolds etc
4. Selection of Construction Plant & Equipment
 It plays an important role in execution of any
construction Project,
 Proper selection of equipment contributes to the
completion of the project timely, economically and of
desired quality standards.
 Selection of equipment has become more difficult as
more and no of types of equipment are being produced in
the world.
 Selection of the construction plant basically involves
planning the equipment with careful selection
considerations and establishing the basis for selection.
Cont…
 The basis for selection could be vary from company to
company and project to project.
 Mainly based on
a) Technical aspects governed by the performance
b) Economical aspects and commercial aspects mainly
concerning the contractors or the equipment hire
organizations from a business sense.
 Planning for equipment selection
 Planning can be described as a function aimed at selection
from alternatives courses of action which will direct an
organizations human and material resources for future time
span.
 Executing projects with mechanized construction, planning
plays an important role and has a big impact on the ultimate
cost of the project.
 Planning involves working out to get the answers to the
following questions
a) What is the equipment needed for ?
b) When is the equipment needed and for how long ?
c) How big an equipment is needed ? (capacity ?)
d) Which one is the preferred ? (efficiency factor based upon
the history of performance of the equipment)
 Cont…
 At the planning stage, it is necessary to take concrete
decision on the method of achieving the ultimate target by
utilizing resources (Men, M/C, material and money)
 Based on Geological conditions, Weather conditions, Site
conditions, Transport facilities, Availability of fuel and
energy, Availability of labor, Availability of
services(electricity, water, health care), pollution standards.
 It is equally necessary to be knowledgeable in the following
to prepare a basic plan:
1) Types of equipment manufactured in the world &
availability locally or in the region
2) Selection criteria of equipment
3) Cost of equipment
4) Safety standards of equipment.
Planning Process
 As per recommendation of the manufacturer

 Maintenance manual

 Maintenance instruction

 Past experience

 All other information from the market.

 We need to make systematic document for future work.

Issue must also be considered during the planning of
equipment
Sr issue
no
1 Manufacturing industry has a fixed set of equipment, but construction industry
does not have that luxury.
2 At each site the construction equipment need is separate
3 In manufacturing, the plant can be fine-tuned to eliminate wastage & increased
productivity. The construction industry has very less scope for fine tuning.
4 Construction projects are of short duration and lesson learnt from previous project
have limited applicability in the future projects
5 There is significant risk of using construction equipment especially on jobs
requiring large no of equipment
6 Since the bid is offered in unit price basis, there is a possibility of large variance
between estimate & actual quantity
7 Some projects require use of equipment whose value is larger than the value of the
project.
8 In projects like roads and canal construction, equipment is spread over a large area
making it difficult to manage and monitor the equipment operation
Some careful selection considerations

 Specified designed
 Performance is fixed
 The varying need
 Combination may be needed
 Match finding
 Main basis for equipment selection
a) Identification of task:- Clear the area to be filled, Clear the
borrow area, cutting the earth at borrow area, loading the earth
at borrow area, transporting the earth to fill site, spreading the
earth on layers, compacting the earth, preparation of sub-grade
b) Quantity of material-: Area to be filled is 16 m wide and 8000 m
long road embankment, Borrow area 200 m wide and 400 m
long, Quantity of earth work is192000 cum (compacted), average
depth of each layers is 0.3 m, total average height of fill is 1.5 m
c) Unit weight and size, Changeable characteristics, Haul distance
(Hauling time is also important), Traffic ability, Maneuverability
(ability of equipment), Output of equipment-: type of material,
resistance to movement, cycle time, Availability, Serviceability,
Lowest purchase price, Lowest total cost per unit work,
Versatility and adaptability
Workshop Selection
 Based on, types of equipment used

 Available place for plant

 Nature of work e.g. temporary, permanent

 Cost calculation for establishment of work shop or

handle by head office

 Mass of work to be performed.

 Importance of plant etc

5. Monitoring & controlling of equipment operation
 Monitoring the operation-: the function of any equipment
at the operation at job site, is closely monitored to see if it
is working as per the provisions in the plan, monitoring of
equipment includes
a) Checking the actual performance against the planned
construction schedule and the cost incurred
b) Checking the performance of the equipment utilization
schedule and maintenance schedule: this may be done
through daily, weekly and monthly records, field
inspection and maintenance, repairs done at the site
workshop etc, at the central level this may be done
through the monthly and annual maintenance schedule
Controlling the equipment operation
 Controlling function involves taking action to correct
any deviations from the plan that are noted during the
monitoring process.
 Any indicator is found not meeting the norms as set in
the plan, then the deviation is noted.
 Controlling is the function that involves comparing the
actual performance against what was planned and
taking remedial action to catch up with delay or other
performance indicators.
For construction plant management, control is
Sr Action
no
1 Control to recover time lost:- This can be done by working extra hours
2 Control to increase operating hours-: Operating hour can be increased up to 24 hrs
by working in shift. A different set of operation is required for each shift.

3 Control to increase mechanical availability-: This is achieved by increasing working

hrs and reducing down time.

4 Control to improve use of availability-: This is achieved by increasing working hrs in

a shift. By doing this, stand by hrs per shift is reduced and use of availability is
improved.
5 Control of operation cost-: It is very important in case of construction plan. This can
be achieved by increasing full efficiency and reducing minor maintenance cost ad
other down time cost.

6 Control of maintenance cost-: Maintenance cost is the major cost component for any
construction equipment. This cost is the combination of spare parts purchase, its
holding, transportation and fitting in the machine. Auxiliary items like kerosene or
other thinner for cleaning etc, is also a significant cost. Time needed for
maintenance and technician hrs consumed is another major components of
maintenance cost. All these all must be controlled carefully.
6. Cost of Equipment
 Ownership cost

1. Capital cost

2. Depreciation

 Operational cost

1. Overhead

2. Maintenance cost
Ownership Cost
 Owing and operating and equipment incurs some cost.
 For large piece of equipment , significant amount of
money is invested for its purchase
 There is some cost of this initial money called interest or
the cost of capital
 The second important component is the cost of
consumption of equipment over a period of time called
depreciation cost of equipment
 Third major component is the property tax. Whether the
equipment is used or not company has to pay certain
taxes to the government.
 Next major cost is the cost of insurance of the equipment
A method for estimating the probable ownership
cost of equipment is
Sr Content
no
1 Estimate the purchase price of the equipment that is delivered to the company. This
includes cost o purchase, cost of transportation and cost of delivery.

2 Estimate the useful life of the equipment and its salvage value or the scrap value at
the end o its useful life. This can be estimated from the historical records and
manufacturer’s information

3 Select an appropriate interest rate for money that is invested on equipment

purchase. The current rate of interest for borrowing may be taken. Add some risk
factor to it and establish a minimum rate of return (MARR). The MARR will always
be higher than the current rate of interest on borrowed capital.

4 Estimate the cost associated with taxes, insurance and storage of the equipment
each year.

5 Estimate the cost of operator and helper and any other cost component that may be
incurred to keep the equipment.
Cont…
 Therefore ownership cost = interest on capital (i) +
depreciation (d) + property tax (t) + insurance premium (p) +
cost of storage (s) + salary/wages of driver & helper (w)
 Operating cost-: Operating costs are those with the operation
of a piece of equipment. Operating cost usually occurs only
when the equipment is being used. The following make up the
operation cost-:
1) Cost of fuel consumption
2) Cost of lubricants
3) Operator allowance
4) Minor maintenance and repair cost
Plant Depreciation
 Most of the fixed assets are worn out while in use over a
period of time.

 This wear and tear is bound to occur but it can be

minimized up to some extent by proper care and
maintenance.

 The term Depreciations means a fall in the value of an

asset with use & passage of time.
Cont………..

 For the fixed assets like plant, machinery, building,

furniture fixtures etc. there is a decline in the value to use
and it termed as Depreciation.

 From the accounting point of view, the concept of

depreciation is that of sluggish or amortized cost.
Reason for decline in the value
 Lapse of time

 Wear and tear due to use over a period of time.

 Lack of proper repair and maintenance

 Mishandling and accidents

 Introduction of new improved equipment in the market

(obsolescence)
Purpose of calculating Depreciation
 Distribute the initial cost of the equipment, m/c or
assets plus installation charge less the salvage values
over the estimated useful life of the assets.

 To keep the annual depreciation of various asset in

operation.

 To provide reserve fund for the proper repair &

maintenance of the plant & equipment.
Methods for calculating depreciation
1. Straight line method
2. Diminishing balance method
3. The sum of years digit method
4. Sinking fund method

5. Annuity charging method

6. Machine hour basis method

7. Double declining balance method

Cont……

 To provide depreciation data for policy formulation

 To provide depreciation cost to get,

1. Estimated life of the equipment/asset in years

2. Estimated scrap value of the asset

3. Cost the equipment required for replacement.

Types of depreciation
1. Physical depreciation -: Due to wear and tear, physical decay,
deferred maintenance and neglect.
2. Functional depreciation- : Reasons are a) obsolescence owing
to the development of superior units and existing unit can
not serve the desired goals. b) inability to meet the desired
demand so change of existing asset by superior unit available.
3. Accidental depreciation-: Incur a very rapid loss of value of
the equipment/asset and are unpredictable. These insurable
losses may be of huge magnitude and are not treated as
depreciation.
1. Straight line method
 This is the simplest of all the methods available for
calculation of depreciation cost & in the construction
industry as well.

 Annual depreciation charges (D) = Ci-Cs/N

Where, Ci = initial cost of the m/c

Cs = scrap value of the m/c

N = no of yrs of economic or useful life

D = depreciation charges per year

 Advantages
 The method is simple & easily understandable

 It recognizes the fact that usage of asset with time is a major

factor in depreciation calculation.

 The method requires little efforts for depreciation calculations .

1. Limitation, a) the method is unrealistic since the asset do not

wear out at same rate during their life, b) the repair and
maintenance cost tend to increase during the later life of the
asset/equipment so it is better to charge higher rates of
depreciation during earlier life of the m/c
2.Diminishing balance method
 This is also called “Reducing Balance” method.

 In most of the cases, the cost of repair and maintenance

of an plant & equipment/machine or a fixed asset
increases towards the end of its active life.

 So, it is sometimes considered desirable to calculate

depreciation costs in such a way that these charges asset
decreases rate.
Cont….

 The rate of depreciation in this method in neither

constant nor linear but curvilinear, because the
depreciation is calculated by taking a certain % of
current book value of the asset.

 Also known as “% on book value” depreciation model.

Cont….
 Let, N = Economic life of the asset in years
Ci = initial cost of the asset in Nrs
p = Fixed % depreciation, normally 10-15%
Cs = crap value at the end of N yrs. Also called
salvage value
So, depreciation in the 1st yr = pCi…………….(1)
Book value of the asset at the end of one yr or under
depreciated value after 1 yr
= Ci- pCi = Ci(1-p)……………………………(2)
The depreciation at the end of 2nd yr
= pCi(1-p)
Cont……..
 The un depreciated value at the end of 2 yr
= Ci(1-p) – pCi(1-p)
= (1-p) (Ci-pCi) = (1-p)(1-p)Ci = Ci(1-p)2

 Similarly the un-depreciated value at the end of N yrs

which is scrap value or salvage values after N yrs.
= Ci(1-p)N
 Cs = Ci(1-p)N or, (1-p)N = Cs/Ci or, (1-p) = (Cs/Ci)1/N
 P= 1- (Cs/Ci)1/N
 The depreciation at the end of N yrs = Ci p(1-p)N-1
3. The sum of years Digit method

 The effect of this method is to charge depreciation at a

decreasing rate each year.

 After an asset or equipment has been installed, the

reduction in its value will be greater initially and it will
go on decreasing gradually.
Cont…….
 Taking recognition of this fact, greater amount of
depreciation is made during early yr of life and it goes
on reducing as the life of asset decreases.

 If N is the estimated useful life of an equipment in yrs,

the rate is calculated for each yr as a fraction in which
the denominator is always sum of the series 1,2,3…..N
and the numerator for the 1st yr is N, for the 2nd yr N-1
and for the third yr N-2 and so on.
 4. The sinking fund method
 This method is based on the assumption of setting up a
sinking fund in which money is accumulated to replace
the existing equipment/machine asset at the proper time.
 In this model of depreciation, a fund equal to the actual
loss in the value of the equipment/machine is estimated
taking in to account the interest on the so accumulated
fund.
 An identical rate of depreciation is charged every yr
throughout the useful life of the asset/equipment
Cont…….
 This is the only technique which provides cash for the
replacement of the equipment/ machine at the end of
the useful life estimated for it.

 The mathematical relation used to calculate annual rate

of depreciation is ROD = i(Ci-Cs)/(1+i)N -1, where i is rate
of interest on accumulated fund in fraction number
charged throughout the life of the asset.
5. The annuity charging method of depreciation
 This method considers original cost and rate of
interest on the written down value of the
equipment/machine or assets.

 In this technique, we consider the purchase of

equipment/ machine as an investment on which
interest is earned.
Cont…….
 The investment for the purpose of calculation of
depreciation cost in the written down or book value of
the asset plus interest earned to date.

 Thus in this method the rate of depreciation is constant

every yr,
Cont………..
Ci = initial cost of asset/equipment

Cs = scrap value of asset, N = economic life in yr

I = rate of interest, C1 = Book value after one yr

C2 = Book value after two yr

ROD = Ci+Cii-C1 = Ci(1+i)-c1, Considering two yr

period, ROD = C1+C1i-C2 = C1(1+i)-C2

In this way general expression is given as

ROD = [Ci(1+i)N –Cs]x [1-(1+i)]/[1-(1+i)N]

6. Machine hour basis method of depreciation
 This method provides for depreciation by means of a
fixed rate per hour of production.

 In this method depreciation is calculated by considering

the total no of productive machine hours or the number
of hour the machine is run per year.

 Rate of depreciation will be equal to value of the

equipment/asset (Difference of initial cost and scrap
value) divided by no of productive machine hours.
7. Double declining balance method
 This is the declining balance method where
depreciation is calculated as depreciation amount =
book value * rate of depreciation
 In this method, rate of depreciation = straight line
depreciation rate * 200 %
 Straight line depreciation rate = 1/n * 100%, where n =
number of useful life of equipment in yrs.
7. Life of Equipment
 Construction plant and equipment do not have
perpetual life. They, like any other equipment, have
fixed life span after which they cannot be used.
 Some equipment are subject to higher degree of
functional, technological and economic obsolescence
due to the rapid development of the technology in the
industry.
Types of life of equipment
 Useful life (Physical life)- Length of time over which the
equipment can be useful and used with a reasonable care.

 Depreciable life-: No of yrs that equipment can be

depreciated

 Taxable life-: life of equipment for tax purpose

 Actual life-: No of yrs the equipment is actually owned by a

company

 Economical life-: Optimum time that the equipment should

be held from an overall income/ cost point of view
Various factors that influence life
expectancies of equipment
 Utilization level-: How many hrs the equipment is used
annually & in what capacity
 Operating personnel-: How trained and skilled are the
personnel
 Maintenance practice-: Is the equipment regularly
maintained or maintain after equipment is broken down
 Availability of spare parts-: whether the required spare
parts are easily available so that maintenance is not
effected
 Availability of technical support-: whether good work
shops are available in the near by area for maintenance
of the equipment and for diagnosis of some serious
problems should they arise
8. Plant Hiring
 A construction company has two option in acquiring plant :It
may either own machinery an equipment or hire it.
 The plant owned must be operated at an economic utilization
level to produce a profitable rate of return on the investment.
 When examining the need to own a plant, the following
points must be considered:
a) Plant can generate sufficient turn over to provide an
adequate rate of return on the capital employed.
b) Purchasing of plant is absolutely necessary for the business
or hiring could be the option.
c) Out right purchase is the only way of acquiring the plant.
History
 Plant hiring started in UK during the 1930’s economic
recession. There was a need of equipments, companies
could not afford to purchase. Hence small beginning
was made and was in great demand.
 In today’s construction company, more than 60% of
plants used are hired plants.
 In Nepal, plant hiring was associated with the item
rate contracting by government department- especially
in Department of roads.
 Department would purchase through its Heavy
Equipment Division located at Kathmandu.
 Basic option for acquiring the plant
a) Owning all plants : A construction company if decides to purchase a
plant, has the following method of arranging the finance:
i) Cash purchase or outright purchase
ii) Hire purchase
iii) Leasing
1) Finance lease
2) Operating lease
b) Hiring all plants: It is a good option since the contractor has no liability
associated with plant owning. Even large companies choose to hire
plants since it smoothens out the demand. In a hiring process
equipment can be hired only for specific period . Its major demerit is
that specific plant may not be available when needed.

c) A combination of owning and hiring plants: It is best and easiest

workable option. The company can decide to own a equipment which
is used frequently and some critical equipment which may be used
rarely may also have been owned depending upon their readily
available in hiring market.
Cont..
An intelligent balance of hiring and owning must be
worked out by company keeping following views in
consideration :
a) Plant owning economy
b) Maintenance need and capability
c) Frequency and use of plant in a year
d) Availability of plant in hiring market
e) General plant holding capacity of company
Need for plant hiring company
 The main objective of plant hiring company is to supply
plant items to construction companies to make profit
from hiring business.
 Because of non- continuity of job of similar nature which
would require a specific type of machine, keeping a piece
of plant would not be economical.
 Regular purchase of plants for small or short use are not
possible. To meet with the sudden demands of the
construction companies plant hiring companies are
must.
Establishing a plant hiring company
 Starting a plant hiring unit may be easier for plant
maintenance companies because of their competence in
the area of plant maintenance .
 For establishing a plant hiring company, some important
considerations must be analyzed. They are:
a) Types of equipment needed in the market
b) Desired market share of the proposed company
c) Market fluctuations and
d) Company competency
Organizing a plant hiring company
 The organizing function combines various human and
material resources together to make a meaningful
whole-an organization
 The organization hierarchy is designed: BOD, MD,
Administration & accounts, stores & purchase,
workshop and marketing and hiring etc
 Each level in the hierarchy of a plant hiring company is
equally important.
Fixing plant hiring rate
 The revenue of a plant hiring company comes from the
plant hiring charge. It should cover owning cost,
operating cost and generate some profit.
 The cost includes:
a) Cost of capital
b) Plant depreciation cost
c) Insurance & license cost
d) Corporate tax and
e) Establishment charge or overhead costs
Cont….
 The operating cost is direct cost incurred while
operating the plant. This cost is a variable cost
depending upon the use of machine. It includes- :
a) Servicing cost
b) Maintenance cost
c) Transportation and shifting charge
d) Cost of fuel & lubrication and
e) Operator’s allowance
Method of calculating economic
hiring rate
 It is also called conventional method
 In this method all the ownership cost, operating cost
and the profit margin is decided and calculated
 When all the three components are added together, it
gives the annual hiring rate of equipment.
 Generally it is the hourly rate that is followed when any
equipment is hired out. For this, the annual cost worked
out is divided by planned annual operation hour.
Equipment activity monitoring and
control
 It is very important that equipment are used optimally to
get maximum productivity.
 Also their maintenance, transfer from one plae to another
etc should be closely motored and controlled.
 Some standard formats which could be used for
performance monitoring an to keep track of equipment
deployed at construction sites are as follows:
a) Property card
b) Equipment use report
c) Equipment ownership record
Cont….
d) Equipment depreciation record
e) Ownership maintenance cost record
f) Equipment deployment card
g) Weekly equipment productivity report
h) Equipment servicing report
i) Equipment transfer record
9. Plant maintenance
 It is the branch of science and engineering which
deals,
1. To maintain system perfect by engineering way.
2. To maintain system running with full efficiency by
engineering way.
3. To maintain all equipment as new as possible by
perfect study, nature and types of parts and
machineries.
Cont…..
 As such, over period of time, many maintenance
strategies or methodologies have been developed,
mainly basis on
1. Time for doing maintenance,
2. Frequency of maintenance
3. Quality of maintenance
4. Complexity and sophistication of equipments
5. Value of total assets. etc
Basis of selecting maintenance
strategies
 Maintenance strategies/ types/ systems are
methodologies and software program which balance
maintenance costs against the impact of plant failure.
 By optimizing equipment maintenance strategies
against both target availability and the penalty of
failure.
Reasons for evaluating/considering/selecting maintenance
strategies
1. Which set of tasks that should be performed & their
frequency.
2. With aging of the plant a different mix of tasks is
needed to maintain reliability.
3. Perhaps with reduced staff, it is not possible to
perform all the task that used to be done and only the
most effective tasks are selected
4. The plant operators may want to reduce maintenance
expenditures without elevating risk or reducing
reliability etc.
Types of maintenance
1. Breakdown or emergency maintenance
2. Corrective maintenance
3. Opportunistic maintenance
4. Routine maintenance
5. Preventive maintenance
6. Predictive maintenance
7. Condition based maintenance
8. Proactive maintenance
9. Improvement maintenance
1. Break down or emergency
maintenance

 Repair is done after failure has already occurred.

 The equipments allowed to run undisturbed till it fails

off course lubrication & minor adjustments.

 It may work good in a small factory plant.

2. Corrective maintenance
 It means maintenance action for correcting or restoring a
failed unit (or unit going to fail).

 Emergency work, high priority, generally offline i.e. after

stopping the equipment , giving normally 24hrs notice to
make up the job

 Deferred works- jobs of lower order priority

 To eliminate/ reduce repetitive breakdowns.

 It is generally one time task.

3. Opportunistic maintenance
 It can be utilized for maintaining/ changing other worn
out components, even though they have not failed.

 This would be probably economical in the long run

rather than taking shut down.

 It is actually not any specific maintenance strategy but is

a system of utilizing opportunity, when may come any
time.

 To carry actual jobs, we may use other maintenance

system/ strategy.
4. Routine maintenance
 It is the simple but very essential form of maintenance
system.

 Earlier, it was considered about preventive failure,

today it is being considered about avoiding, reducing
or eliminating the consequences of failures.

 It needs very little investment in time and money.

 The cost of not doing routine maintenance may be

very high.
5. Preventive maintenance (PM)
 It has vast scope

 The steps include review of existing PM or other

maintenance programmes.

 Check drawings, design and installation of

equipments including subs equate redesign and
minor modification depending on specific nature of
problems

 Proper identification of all items, proper

documentation & codifications

 Check history/cards/records, spare catalogues.

Cont…….

 Periodic inspection of plant and equipments.

 Adequate lubrication, cleaning and painting of

equipment.

 Typical failure analysis and plan for their elimination.

 Organization of PM

 Budget provision & control for repairs and PM

6. Predictive maintenance
 It strives to detect the one set of equipment degradation &
to address the problems as they are identified.

 Detection/ analysis and correction.

 Well organized program is, equipment inventory,

numbering system, spare parts inventory, spare parts
forecast, organizational requirements, qualification of
personnel, training.
Advantages
 Provides increased component operational life and
availability
 Allows for preemptive corrective actions

 Results in decrease in equipment and/or process

down time and prolongs the time intervals between
shutdowns/ overhauls
 Lowers costs for parts and labor

 Improves worker and environmental safety etc

7. Condition based maintenance
system
 It is an age-old practice.
 Development of good & cheap condition monitoring tools &
superior monitoring techniques, which detect the fault
generation
 Increased awareness and acceptance of CM tools & technique
by common maintenance personnel and other concerned
personnel
 Increased cost of equipment downtime because of reactive or
preventive maintenance in terms of cost of maintenance and
resources used and cost of loss of production.
8. Proactive maintenance
 Concentrate on the monitoring and correction of root
causes to equipment failure.

 It takes micro view on machine damage, concentrating

on the causes instead of the symptoms of wear etc.

 Making repair which often nothing is broken

 Accommodating failure as routine and normal

 Preempting crisis failure maintenance

Overhauling maintenance
 The machine is overhauled after two or three medium
repairs.
 The engine of the machines, gear box or the whole
transmission system is dismantled, and major repair is
made. Major spare parts are replaced with the new
ones.
 After overhauling the machine should be put to work at
a lower load for some times so that the replaced parts or
components get adjusted smoothly. This is called
running-in.
 Running-in takes 8-10 hrs for simple machine and 50-70
hrs for large machine to get adjusted.
Plant maintenance option
 Plant maintenance policy is referred to the selection
method for maintaining the construction plant owned
by the company.
 In case of hired plant responsibility of maintenance
generally lies with the plant hiring company.
 There are basically three methods for maintaining the
plant holdings of a company. They are:
a) Keeping own maintenance crew for all in house
maintenance
b) Contracting out all maintenance work and
c) Mixture of own crew and contracting out some
maintenance
Spare parts management
 For all types of equipment and machineries proper
spare parts are to be managed and stock out
 Minimum level (stock)
 Maximum level
 Fast worn out parts
 As per maintenance manuals recommendation
 Spare parts manual.
Cont…
 Service parts management is the main component of a
complete Strategic Service Management process that
companies use to ensure that right spare part and
resources are at the right place (where the broken part
is) at the right time.
 Spare parts, are extra parts that are available and in
proximity to a functional item, such as
an automobile, boat, engine, for which they might be
used for repair.
Economic consideration
 Spare parts are sometimes considered uneconomical since:
 the parts might never be used
 the parts might not be stored properly, leading to defects
 maintaining inventory of spare parts has associated costs
 parts may not be available when needed from a supplier
 But without the spare part on hand, a company's customer
satisfaction levels could drop if a customer has to wait too
long for their item to be fixed. Therefore, companies need to
plan and align their service parts inventory
and workforce resources to achieve optimal customer
satisfaction levels with minimal costs.
User Consideration
 The user of the item, which might require the parts, may
overlook the economic considerations because:
 the expense is not the user’s but the supplier’s
 of a known high rate of failure of certain equipment
 of delays in getting the part from a vendor or a supply
room, resulting in machine outage
 to have the parts on hand requires less “paperwork” when
the parts are suddenly needed
 of the mental comfort it provides to the user in knowing
the parts are on-hand when needed
 The parts are un-economic to be repaired i.e. it's cheaper
to discard than to get it repaired
Improvement of Spare part
Management
 Develop clear spare parts stocking criteria
 Provide clear guidelines on how many parts to
stock
 Accept that some stock outs are OK
 Review the holding of excess spare parts
inventory
 Identify the causes of excess spare parts inventory
 Review your store room security
Procurement and inventory
 Recommended spare parts are to be procured from
respective companies
 To maintain low investment in inventory
 To supply the raw materials/products at right time
and at right price
 To achieve low level of waste, surplus, scrap or
obsolete items
Procurement
 Procurement is the first phase of material management.
 It may be considered as an “activity responsible for
getting the right material to the right place in right
quantity, at right time and at right price.
 Procurement may be defined as a technique of
purchasing materials/goods, machine tools, supplies
services etc. required for the plant/industry and for the
maintenance of equipment.
Objectives of Procurement
The fundamental objective of procurement is to see
that the company operates in a profitable manner
without interruption due to shortage of material. The
following are the main objectives of procurement:
 To maintain the continuity of the operations.
 Minimum investment in inventory.
 To avoid duplication
 Minimization of procurement cost
 To maintain quality standards as per consumer
suitability
 To fight competition.
Function of Procurement
 To procure the right quality and type of materials at
minimum rates at right time.
 To ensure that delivery of goods is received within specific
periods.
 To purchase small items directly from market without
quotations.
 To place orders of requisitioned goods with right suppliers,
after an analysis of proposals, selection of the vendors and
keeping in view the inventory levels.
 To act as liaison between the vendors and various
departments of concern such as production, maintenance,
quality control and finance.
 To take prompt decisions about disposal of material waste
and salvage.
Procurement Procedure
The procurement procedure consists of following seven
stages :
 Receipts & analyzing of requirement and processing of
requisitions.
 Choice and location of potential suppliers.
 Request, receipt and analysis of quotations.
 Placing of orders.
 Follow up and expediting the purchase order.
 Verification of vendor’s invoices for payment after
processing discrepancies and rejections.
 Closing completed orders and maintenance of records.
Inventory
 Inventory in simple words means all the materials
recorded in ledgers/books of the organization and kept
it in stocks for some period of time.
 Inventory is the list of names, with complete
specifications, quantities, and money values of usable
items.
 Even though inventory of materials is an idle resources
in the sense it is not meant for immediate use but for
smooth functioning of the organization or enterprise,
maintenance of some inventory is essential.
Functions of Inventory
The functions or characteristics of inventory are as
follows:
 Inventories serves as cushions
 Inventory, a necessary evil for any enterprises
 Inventory provides production economies
 Maintenance of smooth and efficient production
flow
 Creation of motivational effect in decision making
Importance of inventory
The following points give the importance of inventory to
an organization:
 Good consumer service can be provided and maintained
in the organization
 Enables smooth and efficient production flow of
goods/items
 Provides protection against uncertainties regarding
demand and supply of material and output
 Various production activities can be independently and
economically performed
 Ensure better utilization of men, machines and
materials.
Reasons for holding Inventories
 Financial objectives
 To create a buffer stock between input and output
 To ensure against delay in deliveries
 To allow for a possible increase in output if so required
 To ensure against scarcity of materials in the market
 To make use of quantity discounts
 To utilize to advantage price fluctuations
10. Equipment safety
 The construction industry is one of the most accident
prone industries.
 Due to lack of safety measures and precautions accidents
are in highly increasing state.
 Due to these accident there are two types of obvious
losses. They are
a) Direct losses: compensation to workers, medical
expenses, and lost time of workers. This type of loss can
be quantified in terms of rupees
b) Indirect losses: cost of accident investigation and
reporting, selecting & training of replacement worker,
loss due to reduction in efficiency of the workers after
returning to the work, loss of confidence in worker etc
Causes of accident due to equipment
 A study of the causes of accident due to equipment
operation at construction sites shows that most accidents
occur because of:
a) Defective equipment, devices and mechanized tools
b) Violation of normal course of the operating procedure
c) No or inadequate brief to operators and helpers
d) Operating of the equipment by non- qualified person
mostly by helpers
e) Wrong arrangement of equipment obstructing passage or
work areas
f) Unsafe storage of liquid fuels
g) No proper care for preventive maintenance work
h) Use of improper tools for maintenance of equipment etc.
Bitumen boiler
 The basic activity in bituminous work is to pre heat
bitumen to the required temperature.
 Earlier boilers fired with wood was of common type.
 Modern boiler use diesel fuel burners to heat the
bitumen to the required temperature.
 The boilers are generally heated by a U shaped heating
tube fitted with automatic burners of required
capacity.
 On the top of boiler a man hole is provided for
inspection and charging of bitumen.
Handling/safety measures of Bitumen
Boiler
 The work area must be cordoned off from the general
public and bystanders.
 LPG Safety
 Storage
 Preparation Procedure
 Attaching of cylinders
 Checking of leakage
 Checking frost in cylinders
 Equipment maintenance
 Operating equipment carefully
Bitumen Sprayers
 They load preheated bitumen from boilers.
 These machines are equipped with burners fired by
organic fuel, generally diesel or crude oil.
 The distributors have bitumen spraying attachment
which sprays bitumen in a fan shape through nozzles.
 The spraying is done under pressure with the help of
pump attached to it.
 The pump pressure and opening of nozzles together
with the speed of distributor ensure correct rate of
spraying the bitumen.
Importance of Bitumen Sprayer
 Prime coat application
 Application of first coat bitumen on DVST work
or SVST work.
 Application of second coat of bitumen on DVST
work
The bitumen distributors are available in
different size and capacity. They are selected as
per the requirement of the project.
Handling of Bitumen Sprayer
 Receiving bitumen deliveries into bulk tanks (Acmar,
Phoenix or MST tanks)
 Collecting bitumen from suppliers depots Transferring
bitumen from bulk tanks into other storage tanks
(combined sprayers etc.)
 Completing maintenance or repair work on any bitumen
tanks, valves or pipe work systems
 Ensure all persons, including designated site emergency
response teams, are trained in the first aid treatment of
bitumen burns and relevant emergency response fire-
fighting procedures.
Cont…
 Developing, reviewing and applying Safe Work
Methods Statements (SWMS) for bituminous works.
 Selecting, procuring, maintaining, using and
disposing all substances, including bitumen modifiers,
solvents and additives used for bituminous works in
compliance.
 Consulting and verifying all work
practices/procedures, plant and processes are safe to
proceed with.
 Proper servicing and maintenance of bitumen sprayer,
in accordance with manufacturers/suppliers standards
Lifting Cranes
 Cranes are a combination of machine equipped with a
hoist, wire ropes and sheaves that is used to lift and
lower the heavy loads.
 The advantage of crane is that they can rotate 360
degree around.
 They are extensively used in construction process to lift
or lower heavy loads and move them horizontally and
vertically.
 There are basically two types of crane :
a) Mobile crane
b) Stationery crane
Handling/Safety measures of lifting
cranes
 Periodically read the manual and review the rules.
 At the beginning of your shift, check your hoist.
 Examine the load chain for damage or twists, or the wire
rope for kinks or fraying.
 Check the hook. If it's out of shape, don't use it. This may
indicate internal damage.
 Don't try to lift more than the hoist rating. If you don't know
the hoist's rating, find out.
 Avoid shock loads. Don't run the hook with a slack chain.
Bring the chain or wire to a taut position before lifting.
 To avoid damage to the hoist, the rope or chain should
always be in a straight line from hoist to hook.
 Avoid snagging a load while lifting.
 Avoid jogging a load.
 Balance a load carefully. Use the right sized sling.
Cont…
 Be sure your load is secure so that nothing can slip out
and cause damage or injury.
 On two-part reeve hoists, keep the lower block from
capsizing to avoid chain or wire rope damage.
 Never use the load chain or wire rope for a sling and
make sure the load chain or rope is straight...no kinks,
bends or breaks.
 Don't bend the rope or chain over sharp edges.
 When welding near a hoist, avoid heating the chain and
making it weak; keep weld spatter off the chain, and
never use the hoist as a ground.
 Never get help to lift something with a chain block. If it
can't handle it alone, don't lift it.
 Don't use a pipe cheater on a lever hoist.
Cont….
 When using a wire rope hoist, check the wire on the
drum. Don't let it get out of the grooves and pile upon
itself.
 Side pulls with a wire rope hoist may fray the rope and
make it unsafe and/or damage the hoist.
 Never leave a suspended load unattended. That load is
your responsibility.
 Never carry a load over another person...or get under a
load yourself.
 Never lift people with a hoist.
 When moving a load, look where you are going. Push,
don't pull.
Steam Boilers Under Pressure
 Boilers are pressure vessels designed to heat water or
produce steam, which can then be used to provide
space heating and/or service water heating to a
building.
 In most commercial building heating applications, the
heating source in the boiler is a natural gas fired burner.
 Oil fired burners and electric resistance heaters can be
used as well.
 Steam is preferred over hot water in some applications,
including absorption cooling, kitchens, laundries,
sterilizers, and steam driven equipment.
Handling/safety measures of Steam
Boiler under Pressure
 Do not use hands to stop moving equipment
 Store all oily rags or waste in approved containers to prevent
fires caused by spontaneous combustion.
 Only use approved safety cans to store combustible liquids.
 Check all fire safety equipment on a regular basis to be sure
it is in proper working condition.
 Do not leave loose tools on ladders, catwalks, tops of
boilers, or scaffolds.
 Always secure and tag steam stop valves, bottom blow down
valves, and feed water valves when a boiler in battery is
removed from service for cleaning and inspection.
Cont…
 Always use low voltage droplights when working in
boiler steam and water drums.
 Clean up liquid spills at once.
 Wear gloves when handling hot lines or cleaning fuel
oil burner tips.
 Wear appropriate eye protection in all designated
areas. Use hand shields when visually inspecting the
furnace fire.
 Check all fire safety equipment on a regular basis to be
sure it is in proper working condition.
Electrical system in equipment
 Electrical equipment includes any machine powered
by electricity.
 It usually consists of an enclosure, a variety of electrical
components, and often a power switch. Examples of
these include:
 Major appliance
 Microcontroller
 Power tool
 Small appliances
 Nowadays electrical system in equipments are widely in
acceptance due to its different benefits in our day to day
life.
Cont…
 More specifically, often electrical equipment refers
only to components part of the electrical
distribution system such as:
 Electric Switchboards
 Distribution Boards
 Circuit Breakers and disconnects
 Electricity meters
 Transformers
Handling/Safety measures for
electrical equipments
 Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits
 Disconnect the power source before servicing or
repairing electrical equipment.
 Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting
handles when working on electrical devices.
 Minimize the use of electrical equipment in cold
rooms or other areas where condensation is likely. If
equipment must be used in such areas, mount the
equipment on a wall or vertical panel.
Cont…
 Do not rely on grounding to mask a defective
circuit nor attempt to correct a fault by insertion of
another fuse or breaker, particularly one of larger
capacity.
 Drain capacitors before working near them and
keep the short circuit on the terminals during the
work to prevent electrical shock.
 Do not store highly flammable liquids near
electrical equipment
Faulty and Defective Equipment
 Malfunctioning or defective equipment – be it heavy
industrial vehicles like cranes, forklifts and hydraulic
lifts, or hand tools
 Moreover can be defined as anything that renders the
product not reasonably safe.
 The product may have a design defect, resulting from
the product having been poorly designed or tested, so
that the design itself yields a product that can not
perform its desired function.
Precautions for faulty/defective
equipments
 Carry out regular risk assessments on machinery and
equipment.
 Carry out regular checks and maintenance of
machinery and equipment.
 Ensure that all employees receive suitable training in
using machinery or equipment.
 Ensure that employees are aware of the risks of a piece
of machinery which is considered to be dangerous
following a risk assessment.
 Replace faulty machinery or equipment
Bitumen storage tanks
 The term ‘Bitutainer” has now become a widely
recognized name in the industry, due to the success of
the TEC range of bitumen containers.
 Incorporating the key design principles of high
carrying capacity, operator safety, heat efficiency and
durability, the TEC Bitutainer is the optimal solution
in bitumen transportation and intermediary storage.
 It is widely in acceptance in transfer of chemicals from
one place to another. In simple words it has become
the easiest means of transportation to carry out the
chemicals.
Types of Bitumen Storage Tanks
There are three types of bitumen storage tanks. They
are:
a) Hot oil heating bitumen storage tanks : This bitumen
tank should be equipped with thermal oil furnace.
The heat source comes from hot oil during heating of
thermal oil furnace.
b) Electric heating bitumen tank: This tank is heated by
electric heated tube. This tank is easy, compact and
high level of automation and no pollution during
construction.
c) Container type directly heating bitumen tank: This
tank has the features of high thermal efficiency and
containership design which is very easy to install and
transport.
Filling of Bitumen Storage Tanks
 Integrated level control and monitoring
 Delivery connection within containment area
 Standard Passive for truck pump
 Pump Fill systems
 30 to 300 GPM (120 to 1200 LPM)
 Multi-pint high level sensors
 Continuous read level transmitters
 Optional multi-tank systems
Risk, its assessment and control
 Risk, is defined as the probability and the severity of
accident or loss from exposure to various hazards,
including injury to people and loss of property.
 The risk assessment involves the application of
qualitative and quantitative measures to determine the
level of risk associated with specific hazards of
equipment operations and maintenance.
 The process examines probability and severity of an
accident that could result from the hazard based upon
the exposure of humans or assets to the hazards.
Cont…
 Risk control:
The most effective method to control risk is to eliminate the risk
associated with the operating plant. It can be done by adopting the
following protocol:
a) Always use or operate the checked and certified equipments.
b) Always operate by trained and certified operator.
c) Get the equipment checked before starting the days work.
d) Provide high visibility clothing to the operator, helper and other
workers working near the equipments.
e) Isolate the equipment working area with hard barricading where
necessary.
f) Housekeeping should be given priority to keep work area tidy. It will
help reduce potential slip, trip, false, skid and other associated risk.
g) Enough illumination must be provided if working at night. The
operators cabin should be provided with illuminated control
devices and indicators.
General rules for the management of
employer of equipment
Safety should be a major concern of the top management
of a contractor’s organization. It should be of equal
concern to the owner of construction project and the
project management consultants. The following rules
must be followed by the management of employer of the
equipment.
a) Right type of equipment must be provided as per the
need of the job.
b) Always keep the equipment in good working order by
ensuring that preventive maintenance is done regularly.
c) Always employ trained and license operators.
d) Do not ask the operator to work when they are not
feeling well.
e) Always allow the operator enough time for rest and
relaxation so that they is saved from fatigue.
Cont…
f) Train the operators on the type of equipment.
g) Get all the equipment tested and certified by a third party
for its operation.
h) Establish company guidelines for equipment operation
and maintenance which includes:
i) responsibilities of operator and helper
ii) responsibilities of maintenance personnel
iii) procedure for identifying maintenance need
iv) procedure for reporting
v) frequency of preventive maintenance service and
it’s plan.
vi) maintenance response procedure with timing
vii) procedure for replacement of spare parts or units.
Safety rules for crane operator
a) All cranes should be provided with safety devices to
ensure safety of adding personnel.
b) Cranes must be inspected for external fitness when they
are stopped.
c) All the mechanism of crane is tested on idle run.
d) Cranes should be used strictly according to the operating
instruction for the purpose and rating.
e) Tested and dependable hooks or grabbing attachments
should only be used.
f) Slings of non capacity and suitable to the load should
only be used.
g) Safety devices for holding the crane in place incase of
strong wind, weight and hoist stops, out- reach
indicators etc should be used properly and in time.
h) A standard operating procedures must be prepared for
each crane.
11.Estimating production rate of
some equipments
 Production rates of equipment are required to be
known to estimate the size and number of
equipment to be deployed for a particular job.
 This will also give an estimate of the size and the
capacity of other accompanying equipment.
 The production rate determines the unit cost of the
activity.
 Therefore knowing the production rate of an
equipment is very important to a contractor right
from bidding for a project.
Deciding the size and capacity of
equipment
The following steps should be followed while deciding the
size and capacity of equipment or the combination there
of:
a) Quantity of work to be done
b) Estimate of duration
c) Calculating average rate of production
d) Selecting the suitable size and finding the cycle time
e) Finding the output of a machine
f) Finding the number of machines required
g) Relaxation allowance
h) Down time allowance
i) Job site and management efficiency
Fundamentals of Earth working
a) Some important consideration:
1) Handling of bulk materials in large construction
project involves:
i) total volume of material to be handled.
ii) The size of individual piece of material.
The properties of materials influence the capacity of
the equipment to a great deal. Hydrology, geography
and geology of the area also affect the movement of
vehicles and affect the productivity of machines.
2) Mechanical capabilities of the machines: for large
project involving large amount of materials handling,
large construction equipment will be economical since
per unit cost will be lower.
Cont…
b) Properties of materials
Soil properties affecting the quantity of unit weight of
soil influence the measurement of soil quantity.
Similarly, swelling and shrinkage also affects
measurement.
When the earth is measured in its natural condition,
it is called bank volume. When removed from a natural
condition the volume increases, and this new
measurement is called lose volume.
Increase in the volume with respect to bank volume gives
the percentage of swell of earth.
Cont..
Fig..Properties of soil
Sr no Type of soil Bank density, kg/CuM Swell factor
1 Earth, dry 1680 0.80
2 Earth, wet 1980 0.80
3 Earth with sand & gravel 1920 0.84
4 Sand , dry 1620 0.87
5 Sand, wet 1680 0.87
6 Gravel, dry 1800 0.89
7 Gravel, wet 2160 0.88
8 Clay, dry 1500 0.78
9 Clay, wet & dense 1800 0.75
10 Loam 1620 0.83
11 Rock, soft 1980 0.73
12 Rock, hard & well blasted 2400 0.67
Production out put of some
equipment
1) Out put of dozers
 The production of dozer depends upon factors like
size of the machine, its working condition, speed of
operation, distance of travel, quality of materials to
be handled, operating grade, job & management
factors etc.
 The out put of dozer (Qd ) in bank volume per hrs can
be calculated by using the formula:
Qd = (loose volume/trip) * S* (60/t)*efficiency
Where, S= swell factor and
t= cycle time in minutes
Cont…..
The loose volume can be determined by measuring the
area of load profile in front of the dozing blade and
multiplying it with length of the blade.
Travel time of a dozer can be calculated as :
Travel time in min= [haul distance(m) * 0.06]/ [haul
speed (kmph) ] + [return distance (m)* 0.061]/[return
speed(kmph)]
Cont..
2) Output of loaders
 Output of a loader depends upon several factors like
type of soil excavated, size of loader, job condition
and management efficiency, size and capacity of
hauling units, condition of equipments etc.
 The output is determined by finding the cycle time
of loader which gives the no. of cycles per hour. This
no. is multiplied by the bucket size in cubic meter
(Cum). This value is adjusted by applying suitable
corrections.
Cont..
Table: A bucket fill factor for a loader
Class of Type of Stock piling Excavation
material machine

Sand and gravel Crawler 90 60

wheeled 80 -

Common earth Crawler 90 60

wheeled 80 -

Well blasted Crawler 70 40

rock wheeled 60 -

Poorly blasted Crawler 50 40

rock wheeled 40 -

Clay, wet and Crawler - 50

sticky
Cont…
3) Output and capacity matching of dump trucks
 Excavating and loading machines like excavators and
loaders need to be properly matched in size and no.
with hauling machines for economic use of such
machines.
 For matching transportation equipment, some trial
calculations have to be made to arrive at the correct size
and number
 An excavator and loader should be able to fill the
hauling equipment in 4-6 buckets. Therefore, as a rule
of thumb, the size of a dump truck is taken as 4-6 times
the capacity of a loader bucket.
Cont…
 The following procedure may be followed:
i) Select the truck size with a capacity of 4-6 times the size of
the loader bucket.
ii) Calculate bank volume per cycle of the loader/excavator
iii) Determine loading time by loader/excavator
iv) Calculate the total cycle time of hauling machine (including
loading time) and the no. of cycle made per hour
v) Calculate the output of one dump truck per hour in bank
volume.
vi) Calculate the no. of dump truck (Nt) required for one
excavator/ loader as: Nt= hourly output of loader/hourly
output of dumper
vii) Calculate the unit cost of transportation for the size of the
dump truck selected.
viii) Repeat the same procedure for another size of drum truck or
trucks.
ix) Adopt the size of truck which proves to be cheaper.
Cont..
4) Output of grader
 The output of a grader depends upon the size and type of
grader, travel speed, type of material to be handled, skill of
the operator, and job and management efficiency. Output of a
grader (Qg) is expressed in square meters covered in one hour.
 The area covered in one hour is equal to the distance travelled
in one hour multiplied by the width of the blade.
 The distance travelled depends upon the no. of passes a grader
has to make and the quality of work (grading tolerance).
 Output may vary from operator to operator, for grading with
blade at an angle, actual area covered at a site should only be
considered. This is called the effective width of grader blade.
 Therefore, Qg = effective width (m) *average speed of grading
(m/hr) * efficiency
Cont…
5) Output of a roller
 The output of a roller depends upon the size, type, soil
characteristics, thickness of layer to be compacted, efficiency of
dump truck and spreading machines, grade at which to work and
job and management efficiency.
 The output of a roller is expressed in terms of compacted volume
(Qr) of sil per hour and is calculated as:
 Qr= (Nd* Ld *Sr *T * E)/Np
where, Nd= Number of drums in the roller
Np= Number of passes
Ld= Length of drum
Sr= Speed of rolling
T= Thickness of each layer compacted
E= Efficiency factor
The length of the drum in above formulae should be corrected as
0.95*Ld or the Ld is taken as effective width of the drum.
Cont…
6) Production Estimate for Concrete mixing Plant
 The concrete plant consists of weight batcher and concrete
mixer (size selected).
 The total output of a concrete mixer (Qm) is equal to the
volume of concrete produced per batch multiplied by the
no. of batches per hour.
 The cycle time of the concrete mixer should be calculated
by considering the time for charging dry ingredients into
the mixer, adding water, mixing and for discharging. Idle
and waiting time should also be considered.
 The following values may be considered:
a) Charging and discharging time= 15-30 secs
b) Mixing time for 0.76 cum size mixer= 1 min
c) For each additional 0.38 cum size, increase in mixing
time= 15 secs
Arrangement of Aggregate and
Concrete producing plants
 Average rate of placement of concrete
 Plant for concrete production
 Transportation of aggregates from the processing plant
to the batching and mixing plants
 Aggregate processing plant
 Production of raw material at the query
Construction equipment for
excavation of tunnel
 Drilling jumbo
 Blasting Machines
 Ventilating fans and bowlers
 Pump for dewatering
 Dozers for dump sites
 Mobile crane
 Welding sets
 Rib bending arrangements
 Bit shop equipment
 Trucks for transport of material
Water supply, electric supply and lighting inside the
tunnel will also be needed.
Additional equipment for
construction
 Bull Dozer
 Motor Grader
 Water Sprinkler Truck
 Sheep footed Compacting Roller
 Concrete producing equipment
 Concrete placing equipment
 Pumping sets
 Trucks
 Thank you for your
attendance
Any questions ? please!!!!!