Given these

dipole-dipole
data, fill-in the
missing column,
and create a
pseudo-section.
What might be
going on in this
example?
 Pseudo-sections
A pseudo-section is not
a true resistivity section
– it is only a way of
plotting the data.

The data from a scale

model illustrate the
limitations – note the
typical “inverted-Vee”
shape of the result
Model study of pseudo-section
 Design of resistivity surveys

1. Survey objectives
2. Depth of target
3. Adequate signal strength
4. Sensitivity to target parameters
5. Symmetry of the response
6. Minimize manual repositioning of electrodes
7. Compatibility with “Induced Polarization” (see
later)
Design of resistivity surveys

Minimize manual re-positioning

of electrodes!
 Induced polarization (IP method)
• Discovered by accident by observation of
resistivity meters – slow decay of voltage
in some areas
• Widely used in mineral exploration
• More recently found application in
groundwater and environmental studies
• Major advantage: can detect
“disseminated” deposits
 Induced polarization (IP method)
IP Effect:
Switch off
current, voltage
decays
Switch on
current, voltage
builds up

This is “time-domain” IP – at to current is switched off, the IP effect is

measured by measuring the area A under the decay curve.
Alternative is “frequency-domain IP” – see later
 Mechanisms causing the IP effect

Membrane polarization:
• in clays, electrolytic current flow is impeded by positive ions (attracted
to negatively charged clay particles)
• charges accumulate, voltage builds up
• on release of current, charges drift back to equilibrium, voltage decays
 Mechanisms causing the IP effect

Electrode polarization:
• metallic mineral grains conduct electronically, electrolytic ions
accumulate at pore restrictions causing a buildup of voltage
• on current release, ions drift to equilibrium positions, leading to a
voltage decay
 IP Effect – groundwater and
environmental applications
• Membrane polarization observed in clay
minerals – can be used as an indicator of clays
• Applications in aquifer studies, monitoring of
clay-organic processes in organic contamination
• Salinity affects the strength of the effect
• Metal remnants, galvanic sludge, glazed
ceramics are also chargeable
 IP Effect – mineral exploration

• The greater the exposed metallic surface area,

the stronger the effect
• Enhanced effect for disseminated mineral grains
• Often these are cases in which standard
resistivity response is weak
• In mineral exploration, the effect of near-surface
clays complicates the measurement
IP Effect – factors
Time-domain IP measurement

Use electronics to measure the area (i.e., the integral) A:

This is called the “chargeability” (measured in ms)
Typically t1~0.5 s and t2~1.0 s
Frequency domain measurement of Induced Polarization

• A square wave current source is switched at two frequencies

• The AC output voltage is measured for each input frequency
• At low frequency, the output voltage stabilizes to the DC response
before the voltage is switched
• At high frequency the output voltage is lower, as the input switches
before the voltage stabilizes
 Frequency-domain IP measurement

• At very low switching frequencies, the voltage has time

to build up to a level VDC
• At high switching rates, the voltage does not build up to
VDC
• Instead we measure a lower voltage, VAC
• For each we can define an apparent resitivity:

• The apparent resisitivity thus decreases with frequency

in the presence of an IP effect
 Frequency-domain IP measurement

• The apparent resisitivity thus decreases with frequency

in the presence of an IP effect
• We define the “Frequency-effect” as

• In conductive areas the charge buildup is partially short-

circuited, reducing the FE
• This is compensated for in the “Metal Factor”:
 Pseudo-sections

Top: a pseudo-section from a groundwater application.

Bottom: a “real-section” result using the same data.
 “Pseudo-sections” vs “Real Sections”

• Pseudo-sections: an inaccurate image of the

sub-surface
– nothing more than a representation of the field data
• There are computer modelling methods for
generating synthetic data, for a given 2D model
of the resisitivity
• There are automatic methods for updating the
model to be consistent with the data
– generally known as “inverse modelling” methods
– in resistivity/IP methods, the results are often referred
to as “real sections”
 Model study of “inversion”

Psuedo section Inversion result, or “real”

section
 Model study of “inversion”

Psuedo section Inversion result, or “real”

section
Next lecture: Electrical methods
case studies