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Downhole motors are designed to turn the bit without rotating the drill string.
Thus, it's possible to orient the bit in a desired direction, and maintain its
direction. Moreover, drilling in this "oriented" mode reduces the rig's power
requirements and reduces wear on both surface equipment and tubulars.
Downhole motors come in two basic types: positive displacement motors (PDMs)
and turbine motors.
All the PDMs presently in commercial use are of Moineau type, which uses a
stator made of an elastomer. The rotor is make of rigid material such as steel and
is fabricated in a helical shape.
As the rotor rotates, the fluid is passes from chamber to chamber. These
chambers are separate entities and as one opens up to accept fluid from the
preceding, the preceding closes up.
When circulating fluid is forced through this assembly, it imparts torque to the
rotor, causing it to turn eccentrically. A universal connection transfers this rotation
through a bearing and drive-shaft assembly to a rotating bit sub, which turns the
bit.
• Normal surface pump systems can be used to operate these downhole motors.
• The elastomer of the stator can be damaged by high temperatures and some
hydrocarbons.
A PDM is essentially constituted of two helical gears, one inside the other and
rotating around their longitudinal axis which parallel but spaced between each
other.
The external gear has one more thread or tooth than the internal element.
The internal element is set so that all the threads or teeth are constantly in
contact with the external element.
Introduction to Hypocycloid
If N = 1, the diameter of the small circle is the same as that of the large circle
and the hypocycloid is a circle called 1-lobe hypocycloid. Similarly, if N = 2, the
diameter of the small circle is half of the diameter of the large circle and the
hypocycloid is a line with its length equals the diameter of the large circle called
2-lobe hypocycloid.
K K K K
Assuming the diameter of the base circle of the N-lobe hypocycloid is Db.
Ds = 2eN
K+d
K
K
There will be (N-1) free spaces between the rotor and the stator.
K K K
This new equation can be used to calculate the flow area of any given PDM,
regardless to single or multi-lobe PDM.
The pitch length (P) is defined as a length of 360o rotation of the crest trace of
one helix lobes.
K
K
Note that N is the number of lobe of the stator. For a single lobe PCP, K = 2 and
Ps = 2Pr.
The theoretical pump factor is the total fluid volume that the pump can discharge
as the rotor turns one cycle, which can be expressed as,
The pump capacity when the rotor turns with a speed of w is given as,
K K
If the pressure drop, DP (psi), flow rate, Q (gal/min), and motor efficiency are
known, it is possible to calculate the motor hydraulic horsepower:
The motor efficiency takes into account fluid leaks along contact surfaces
between the rotor and stator, various friction losses, and entry and exit effects.
If the bit rotational speed, w (RPM), is known, the rotary torque can be calculated
K K
A pressure of 100 psi is required to start the rotor shaft against the internal friciton
of the rotor moving in the elastomer stator.
With constant flowrate, the PDM will run at near constant speed, w = 408 RPM.
WOB = 0, w = 408 RPM. DP will drop down to about 100 psi. This DP is to
overcome the internal friction.
The amount of torque and power can be determined by the pressure change at
the standpipe between the unloaded and loaded conditions.
If the DP is more than the pressure limit of 580 psi --> leakage and failure
Horsepower: = (0.8)(500)(350)/1714 = 87 HP
The rotational energy provided by the flowing fluid is used to rotate and provide
torque to the drill bit.
The DTM is composed of two sections: (1) the turbine motor section and (2) the
thrust-bearing and radial support bearing.
The drilling fluid after passing through the turbine motor section is channeled into
the center of the shaft through large openings in the main shaft.
The drill bit is attached to the lower end of the main shaft.
The weight on the bit is transferred to the downhole turbine motor housing via the
thrust-bearing section. This bearing section provides for rotation while transferring
the weight on the bit to the downhole turbine motor housing.
• Hard or extremely hard competent rock formations can be drilled with turbine motors
using diamond or the PDC bits.
• Bit speeds are high, which limits the use of roller rock bits.
• Unless a MWD instrument is used, there is no way to ascertain whether the turbine
motor is operating efficiently since rotation, speed, and torque cannot be measured using
normal surface data.
Turbine motors operate at relatively high rotary speeds, and so are run exclusively
with fixed cutter (PDC or natural diamond) bits. Turbine motor may allow for higher
bit weight and a smoother hole for logging and casing operations than a PDM
Torque definition:
Power definition:
Power:
If there is no resisting torque at the drive shaft (no weight on bit), drilling fluid
passes freely through the rotor and the turbine runs with high rotary speed, which
is called runaway speed (Nra).
As the loading on the drillbit is increased (as WOB is added, torque is increased)
the rotational speed is decreased and eventually the motor stalls (N=0 rpm).
At constant flow rate, the motor torque varies linearly with bit RPM. At stall
conditions the turbodrill develops maximum torque, Tmax.
They also tend to be longer than PDMs, which limits their ability to make high-
angle directional changes.
Because of these limitations, which are inherent in the turbine motor design,
positive displacement motors are used much more commonly.
Stall
Torque
217
807
Runaway
Speed
Prepared by: Dr. Tan Nguyen
Well Design
The torque at the peak horsepower is 1,412 ft-lbf or ½ of the stall torque.
Circulation mud density of 10 ppg at 400 gpm, the DP = 1,324 psi. This pressure is
approximately constant through the entire speed range of the motor.
If WOB increase, the speed will be slow. Maximum HP = 217 at 807 RPM
They are generally programmed by the MWD engineer or directional driller, who
transmits commands from the surface by means of fluid pressure fluctuations in
the mud column or variations in the drill string rotation .
The tool receives these commands and gradually steers in the desired direction.
Thus, unlike a mud motor, which works in a "sliding" mode (i.e., without drill string
rotation), the RSS is designed to drill directionally with continuous rotation from the
surface
The advantages of this technology are many for geoscientists & drillers
1. The flow of drilled cuttings past the BHA is enhanced. This results in improved transport
of drilled cuttings to the surface.
5. Continuous rotation helps borehole walls smoother than those drilled with mud motors;
and hence provides higher quality measurements of formation properties.
A pure push the bit RSS achieves the trajectory change by applying a side
load to the bit by non-rotating (stationary) pads or stabilizers that are pushed
against the wall of the hole. Since the pads can be pushed out only a certain
distance they become ineffective in borehole sections that easily develop
washouts.
A point the bit RSS is furnished with a steering assembly that controls the direction
of drilling (inclination and azimuth) by orienting the tilted shaft to which a drill bit is
attached.
The bit is deflected internally with a hydraulic system, allowing the drill bit to be
offset and pointed out in the desired direction.
The disadvantage of a “point the bit” system is that they are slower to react to
required well path changes and achievable dogleg severity is less than that of a
“push the bit” system.
Type I — Build and Hold: This pattern employs a shallow initial deflection and a
straight-angle approach to the target. It is most often used to reach single targets
at moderate depths, and sometimes for drilling deeper wells with large horizontal
departures.
Type II — Build, Hold and Drop ("S" pattern): After a relatively shallow deflection,
this pattern holds angle until the well has reached most of its required horizontal
displacement. At that point, angle is reduced or brought back to vertical to reach
the target. The Type 2 pattern is most applicable to wells exposing multiple pay
zones, or wells subject to target or lease boundary restrictions.
Type III — Continuous Build: Unlike the Type 1 and 2 patterns, this trajectory has
a relatively deep initial deflection, after which angle is maintained to the target.
The continuous build pattern is well-suited to salt-dome drilling, fault drilling,
sidetracks and redrills.
Type IV —Build, Hold and Build: This is the general pattern describing horizontal
wells. The decision to drill horizontally is primarily based on reservoir engineering
and reservoir management considerations.
Dropping
Building
Holding
As the distance between the first and second stabilizer is increased the drill collar
deflection (sag) will also increase, thereby increasing the bit side force (BSF). If
the second stabilizer is placed too far from the first, drill collars may contact the
wellbore between the stabilizers and the building tendency may be lost.
For a given bending stiffness, weight of drill collars, and the radial clearances at
stabilizers and drill collars, the sag of drill collars depends on hole inclination
angle and weight on bit.
In theory, only one stabilizer is needed to develop the pendulum effect that tends
to decrease the hole inclination angle, but often three stabilizers are used.
For given drilling conditions (formation and drillbit type,WOB, etc.), the drop rate
is a strong function of the distance between the bit and the first stabilizer. As the
distance to the first stabilizer is increased the lateral component of the weight of
drill collars is also increased and the bit is pushed to the low side of the hole.
Generally, the distance between the bit and first stabilizer is approximately 30ft.
Of course, the radial clearances between wellbore wall and stabilizers/drill collars
must also be carefully selected.
Although mud motors and rotary steerable systems are overwhelmingly the tools
of choice for controlled directional drilling, there are other tools that may be of
some use in certain areas. These include:
The driller applies weight to set the wedge and shear the pin, drills 10 to 15 feet
of undergauge hole, then trips the tools so a full-gauge hole opener can be run.
After drilling the section, a survey is made to assure proper direction, and the
process is repeated until the build section of the well is completed.
Jetting bits with orienting nozzles can be effective at initiating deflection in very
soft formations.
The bit is lowered to bottom , the jet is oriented in the desired direction, and mud
flow is initiated with no drill string rotation.
After hydraulically gouging a small pilot hole (about 3 feet), the driller initiates
conventional rotary drilling to open the section to full gauge. The process is then
repeated.
Survey Tools
Azimuth: the direction of the wellbore in the horizontal plane (i.e., the "compass
direction," usually with respect to magnetic or true North)
Survey Tools
Mechanical Drift Indicator
The oldest and simplest type of directional survey tool is the mechanical drift
indicator
Survey Tools
Mechanical Drift Indicator
It is used today for surface hole intervals, shallow vertical wells and other
applications where dog-leg severity and horizontal departure are not likely to
become significant problems.
The use of this device typically involves two inclination measurements: an initial
measurement, followed by one for verification purposes.
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
1. A magnetic compass and angle-indicating unit
3. A timer or motion sensor, which activates the device at a desired time or depth interval
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools – Single Shot
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
Magnetic survey tools record the inclination and azimuth at various points, or
stations, along the well course. Two basic types of tools are available:
It cannot record compass directions inside regular drill collars or casing because
steel pipe blanks off the Earth's magnetic lines of force. Thus, it is used only in
open hole or inside non-magnetic drill collars.
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
It also has incorporated timing devices, including a motion sensor, and is used for
multi-depth drift and direction measurements. Like the single-shot, It must be in
an open hole or inside non-magnetic drill collars to measure compass directions.
Magnetic survey tools can be dropped or pumped to bottom, lowered on slick line
or wireline, or run as part of a measurement-while drilling (MWD) package. When
tools are dropped to bottom--typically before tripping pipe--they can be recovered
when the pipe is pulled, or else by means of an overshot.
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
In place of camera-based devices, more modern magnetic survey tools offer solid-
state electronic recording capabilities.
These devices are armed by means of a surface computer, and then run like
standard multi-shot tools.
Survey data are recorded electronically using highly sensitive magnetometers and
accelerometers, stored, and then retrieved and processed by the computer.
Their main advantages are time savings, improved accuracy, continuous readings
with surface readouts, and elimination of errors caused by manually reading film
records.
Survey Tools
Magnetic Survey Tools
Each of the accelerometers measures acceleration along one line and produces a
signal on one of the three outputs. These three axes and three outputs are labeled
X, Y, and Z.
Survey Tools
Steering Tools
Steering tools are used to measure drift, direction and tool face during semi-
continuous drilling.
Thus measurements are available immediately at the surface for use in controlling
hole direction.
The wireline is either run inside the drill-pipe or passed through a side-entry sub,
and connected to a surface computer, which processes the information and
provides a remote readout. The operator can then correct the tool-face angle as
necessary to maintain the well on course.
One of the most important advances in modern petroleum technology has been
the development of real-time Measurement-While-Drilling (MWD) systems to
transmit drilling and directional information, and Logging-While-Drilling (LWD)
systems to provide formation evaluation data.
2. Monitor penetration rate, actual WOB, downhole torque and drag, etc…
MWD systems record measurements at or near the bit as drilling proceeds, and
the data are transmitted immediately to the surface by pressure pulses in the mud
column or by other methods that do not require an electrical conduit.
Positive PulsePositive: tools briefly close and open the valve to restrict the mud
flow within the drill pipe. This produces an increase in pressure that can be seen
at surface.
Negative Pulse: tools briefly open and close the valve to release mud from inside
the drillpipe out to the annulus. This produces a decrease in pressure that can be
seen at surface.
Continuous Wave: tools gradually close and open the valve to generate
sinusoidal pressure fluctuations within the drilling fluid.
3. an electronics module.
Conventional MWD and LWD systems rely on pressure pulse type telemetry in
incompressible drilling fluids. When compressible fluids are used in low-pressure
drilling (e.g., Underbalanced drilling), the pulses are absorbed by the drilling fluids,
resulting in signals that are undetectable at the surface. In these situations,
electric-magnetic induction (EMI) telemetry is used.