Introduction to Surveying

1. Surveying/Levelling: Definitions, Related Terms,

Objectives of Surveying
2. History of Surveying: Ancient, Medieval & Modern
Developments
3. Primary Divisions of Surveying: Plane, Geodetic
Surveying.
4. Classification Of Surveying: Based Upon Nature of
Land, Equipment Used & Object of Study
5. 2 Major Principles of Surveying
6. Units of Measurement
7. Plans/Maps
8. Scales To Be Used
9. Surveying: Character of Work
10. Accuracy and Errors
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or
beneath the surface of Earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance,
direction & elevation. It also includes the art of establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements. The application of surveying requires skill as well as
the knowledge of mathematics, physics and to some extent, astronomy.
- Dr. B.C. Punmia,, “Surveying-Vol. 01”, 16th edition;
(Ch. 01- pg. 01)

Surveying can also be

defined as
“the art of making measurements
of the relative positions of natural
and man made features on the
earth’s surface and the
presentation of this information
either graphically or
numerically.”

- Bannister, A. Raymond, S., and Baker,

R., 1998, Surveying
Levelling is a branch of surveying. The objective of levelling is:
• To find elevations of points with respect to a given or assumed datum and
• To establish points at given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given
or assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable works to be designed while the second
operation is required in setting out of of all kinds of engineering works.
Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane
- Dr. B.C. Punmia,, “Surveying-Vol. 01”, 16th edition;
(Ch. 01- pg. 01)
 Definitions Used in Surveying:

• Differential Levelling- is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a graduated staff
the difference in elevation between two or more points.

• Precise Levelling- is a particularly accurate method of differential levelling which uses highly accurate
levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general engineering levelling. It aims to
achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km traverse.

• A Level Surface- is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the force of
gravity. An example is the surface of a completely still lake. For ordinary levelling, level surfaces at
different elevations can be considered to be parallel.

• A Level Datum- is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are referred. The most common
surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL), but as hydrological work is usually just concerned with levels
in a local area, we often use:

• An Assumed Datum- is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g. 100.000 m) to

which all levels in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice to assume a level which is
close to the actual MSL value, as it creates potential for confusion.

• A Reduced Level- is the vertical distance between a survey point and the adopted level datum.

• A Bench Mark (BM)- is the term given to a definite, permanent accessible point of known height
above a datum to which the height of other points can be referred. It is usually a stainless steel pin
embedded in a substantial concrete block cast into the ground
 Definitions Used in Surveying:

• A Set-Up- refers to the position of a level or other instrument at the time in which a number of
observations are made without mooring the instrument. The first observation is made to the
known point and is termed a back-sight; the last observation is to the final point or the next to
be measured on the run, and all other points are intermediates.

• A Run- is the levelling between two or more points measured in one direction only. The outward
run is from known to unknown points and the return run is the check levelling in the opposite
direction.

• A Close- is the difference between the starting level of the initial point for the outward run and
that determined at the end of the return run. If the levels have been reduced correctly this
value should be the same as the difference between the sum of the rises and falls and also the
difference between the sum of the back-sights and foresights.

• Height of Collimation- is the elevation of the optical axis of the telescope at the time of the
setup. The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the elevation.

• Orders of Levelling- refer to the quality of the levelling, usually being defined by the expected
maximum closing error.

• Change Points- are points of measurement which are used to carry the measurements forward
in a run. Each one will be read first as a foresight, the instrument position is changed, and then it
will be read as a back-sight.
Object of Surveying:

1. The primary object of surveying is the preparation of a plan or map.

2. A plan is therefore, the projected representation to some scale, of the ground and the
object on the horizontal plane which is represented by the plane of the paper on which
the plan is drawn. The representation is called a map, if the scale is small, while it is called
a plan, if the scale is large, e.g. A map of India, a plan of a building.

3. The science of surveying has been developing from the very initial stage of human
civilization according to his requirement. Earliest surveys were performed only for the
purpose of demarcating its boundaries of plots of land.

4. Due to advancement in technology, the science of surveying has also attained its due
importance. In the absence of accurate maps, it is impossible to lay out the alignments of
roads, railways, canals, tunnels, transmission power lines, & microwave or television
relaying towers.

5. Detailed map of the sites of engineering projects are necessary, therefore, surveying is the
first step in the execution of any project.
History of Surveying
1. Ancient History
2. Medieval History
3. Modern Day Practices
 Ancient Techniques

• The Egyptian land register (2700 BC)-In ancient Egypt, a rope

stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the
annual floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-
south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c. 2700 BC, affirm the
Egyptians' command of surveying.
• The Romans recognized land surveying as a profession. They established
the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided,
such as a tax register of conquered lands (300 AD).Roman surveyors were
known as Gromatici.
• In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a
village or parish. This was the practice of gathering a group of residents
and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal
memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the
memory lasted as long as possible.
• In England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Doomsday Book in
1086. It recorded the names of all the land owners, the area of land they
owned, the quality of the land, and specific information of the area's
content and inhabitants. It did not include maps showing exact
locations.

A plumb rule from the book

Cassells' Carpentry and
Joinery
 Medieval Era Techniques

• Gunter's chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter. It enabled
plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes.
• Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book ”A
geometric practice named Pantometria” (1571). Joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a
compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a
theodolite in 1725
• It was only towards the end of the 18th century that detailed triangulation network surveys
mapped whole countries. In 1784, a team from General William Roy's Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain began the Principal Triangulation of Britain. The first Ramsden theodolite was built for this
survey. The survey was finally completed in 1853. The Great Trigonometric Survey of India began
in 1801.
 Modern Day Techniques

• At the beginning of the century surveyors had improved the older chains
and ropes, but still faced the problem of accurate measurement of long
distances. Dr Trevor Lloyd Wadley developed the Tellurometer during the
1950s. It measures long distances using two microwave
transmitter/receivers.
• The first satellite positioning system was the US Navy TRANSIT system. The
Tellurometer
first successful launch took place in 1960.

• 21st Century:
The theodolite, total station, and RTK GPS survey remain the
primary methods in use.
Remote sensing and satellite imagery continue to improve and
become cheaper, allowing more commonplace use. Prominent
new technologies include three-dimensional (3D) scanning and
use of LIDAR for topographical surveys. UAV technology along
with photogrammetric image processing is also appearing. Optical Theodolite Total-Station

 RTK- Real Time Kinematic (RTK) satellite navigation is a technique used to enhance the precision of position data derived from
satellite-based positioning systems.
 LIDAR- Lidar (also called LIDAR, LiDAR, and LADAR) is a surveying method that measures distance to a target by illuminating
that target with a pulsed laser light, and measuring the reflected pulses with a sensor.
 Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for recovering the exact positions of
surface points.
Primary Divisions of Surveying:
Based on Plane of Measurement
 Primary Division of Surveying Based Upon Plane of Measurement

We know that the shape of the earth is spheroidal. Thus the surface is obviously curved. Surveying is
primarily divided into two types considering the curvature of the earth’s surface.

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

The plain surveying is that type of surveying in The geodetic surveying is that type of
which earth surface is considered as a plane surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
and the curvature of the earth is ignored. taken into account. It is generally extended
over larger areas
 Plane Surveying:

In plane surveying the curvature of the earth is not taken into account, as the surveys extend over
small areas. In dealing with plane surveys, the knowledge of plane geometry & trigonometry is only
required.
In such surveying a line joining any two stations is considered to be straight. The triangle formed by
any three points is considered as a plane triangle, and the angles of the triangle are considered as
plain angles.

Surveys covering an
area up to 260 sq. Km
may be treated as
plane surveys because
the difference in length
between the arc & the
subtended chord on
the earth surface for a
distance of 18.2km is
only 0.1m
 Geodetic Surveying:

The geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into
account. It is generally extended over larger areas. The line joining any two stations is considered
as curved line. The triangle formed by any three points is considered to be spherical and the
angles of the triangle are considered to be spherical angles. Geodetic surveying is conducted by
the survey of India department and is carried out for a larger area exceeding 250 km2.
Geodetic survey is used to provide control points to which small surveys can be connected.
Plane Surveying Vs. Geodetic Surveying:

No. Plain Surveying Geodetic Surveying

1 The earth surface is considered as plain The earth surface is considered as Curved Surface.
Surface.

2. The Curvature of the earth is ignored The curvature of earth is taken into account.

3 Line joining any two stations is considered The line joining any two stations is considered as
to be straight spherical.

4. The triangle formed by any three points is The Triangle formed by any three points is
considered as plain considered as spherical.

5. The angles of triangle are considered as The angles of the triangle are considered as
plain angles. spherical angles.

6. Carried out for a small area < 250 km2 Carried out for a small area > 250 km2
Primary Classifications of Surveying
1. Based upon Nature of Site
2. Based upon Object of Study
3. Based upon Equipment Used
Types of Surveying Based upon
Nature of Site:

1. Land Survey
Topographical Survey
Cadastral Survey
City Level Survey
1. Marine or Hydrological Survey
2. Astronomical Survey

Types of Surveying Based upon Types of Surveying Based upon

Equipment/Technique Used: Object of Study:

1. Chain Survey 1. As-Built Survey

2. Theodolite Survey 2. Engineering Survey
3. Traverse Survey 3. Military Survey
4. Triangulation Survey 4. Mine Survey
5. Tacheometric Survey 5. Geological Survey
6. Plane Table Survey 6. Archaeological Survey
7. Photogrammetric Survey
8. Aerial Survey
9. EDM Survey
Various Equipment Used:

Chains

Plane Table

Compass Total Station Theodolite

Photogrammetry
Surveying may be used for following purposes:

• To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages, towns etc.
• To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best possible site
for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
• To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other
properties.
• Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, archaeological map etc.
• For setting out work and transferring details from the map on the ground.
• To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals.
Topographical/Contour Maps

Engineering Maps
Cadastral Maps
Contour Maps
Military Maps

Archaeological Maps
Geological Maps:
A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show
geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by colour or
symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface.
WHY SURVEY ?
Surveying activities during the construction process

Before Construction Under construction After construction

Planning & Setting out on Final (as-built)

data collection each phase plan or map
of construction on the
construction
Observations
in the field Field checks of Presenting
construction documentation
Processing the to the client
observations Providing data
(office) & services to Deformation
the client Monitoring/
Drawing maps, Load Tests
plans or providing
numerical data

Presenting
documentation
to the client
Site Setting Out Work:
It is the process of developing physical positions of corners and walls of a building and is done
by transferring dimensions from a layout/demarcation plan to the ground. The setting out
clearly defines the outline of excavations and centreline of walls so that the construction can
be carried out according to the design.
Principles of Surveying
 Underlying Principles of Surveying

The 2 major principles upon which various methods of plane surveying are based are:
1. To work from the whole to the part:
The main principle of surveying is to work from the whole to the part. To achieve this in actual
practice, a sufficient number of primary control points are established with higher precision in
& around the area to be detail surveyed. Minor control points in between the primary control
points are then established with less precise method. Further details are surveyed with the help
of these minor control points by adopting any one of the survey methods.

The main idea of working

from the whole to the part is
to prevent accumulation of
error & to localize minor
errors within the framework
of the control points. On the
other hand, if survey is
carried from the part to the
whole, the errors would
expand to greater
magnitudes & the scale of
the survey will be distorted
beyond control.
2. Location of a point by measurement from two control points: The control points are selected in
the area & the distance between them is measured accurately. The line is then plotted to a
convenient scale on a drawing sheet. The location of the required point may then be plotted
by making two measurements from the given control points as follow:
Let A & B be two given control points. Any other point, say D can be located with
reference to these points, by any one of the following method:
• Distances BD & BA can be measured and point D can be plotted by swinging 2 arcs to same
scale to which BA has been plotted. This is commonly used in chain surveying. (fig b)
• A perpendicular Dd can be dropped on reference line AB &lengths Bd & Dd are measured
while plotting point D using set square(fig a)
• The distance AD & angle BAD can be measured while point D is plotted either trigonometrically
or by protractor. This is used in Traversing ( fig c).
• In this case distance BD & AD are not known but angle DBA &
ANGLE DAB can be determined by using angle measuring
devices. Knowing the distance AB, the point D is plotted by
either using protractor or by triangulation. This method is very
much used in triangulation and is used extensively. (fig e)
• Angle DBA & distance AD are measured & point D is plotted
either by protractor or trigonometrically. This is principle of
Traversing. (fig d)

Mason’s/ Carpenter’s 3:4:5 RULE

(A^2) + (B^2 ) = (C^2)

Units of Measurement
 Units of Measurement Used in Surveying

There are 4 kinds of measurements in plane surveying:

• Horizontal Distances
• Vertical Distances
• Horizontal Angles
• Vertical Angles

According to Standards of Weights & Measures Act (India)

1956, the unit of measurement is metres and centimetres.
Prior to this; feet, tenth and hundredths of foot were used.
Basic Units of Area in British & Metric System

Basic Conversion Factors of Length

Basic Units of Length in British & Metric System Basic Conversion Factors of Area
Plans & Maps
 What Is A Plan Or A Map

One of the basic objective of surveying is to prepare plans and maps.

Plan: A plan is the graphical representation to some scale, of the features on, near or below the
surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plane. The horizontal plane is represented by
plane of drawing sheets on which the plan is drawn to some scale however the surface of the
earth is curved it cannot be truly represented on a plane without distortion. In plane surveying the
area involved are small, the earth’s surface may be considered as plane and hence plan is
constructed by orthographic projections. A plan is drawn on a relatively large scale.

Map: If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is small, the plan is called a map
but if the scale is large then it is called a plan. Thus graphical representation is called a plan if the
scale is large while it is called a map if the scale is small.

On plan, generally only horizontal distances and directions or angles are shown. On topographical
map, however the vertical distances (elevations) are also represented by contour lines.
Scales Used In Plans & maps
 Types of Scales

It is basic requirement for the preparation of plan or map scale is used to represent large distances
on paper. The ratio by which the actual length of the object is reduced or increased in the
drawing is known as the ‘scale.’ Scale can be represented by following methods:
• 1 cm. on plan represents 10 mt. on ground. Therefore, 1cm=10mt. This type of scale is called
Engineer’s scale.
• 1 unit of length on plan represents 100 units of length on ground, e.g. – 1/100. This ratio of map
distance to corresponding ground distance is independent of unit of measurement and is
called “representative fraction” (RF) & can be easily be found for engineer’s scale. For instance,
1cm=50m; therefore RF is 1/(50*100)=1/5000.
The above 2 types of scales are known as Numerical Scales.
• An alternative way of representing the scale is to draw a graphical scale; which is a line sub-
divided into plan distance corresponding to convenient units of length on ground. If plan or
map needs to be read after a few years, the numerical scales may not give accurate readings
due to shrinkage of paper but a graphical scale is always readable as it will shrink
proportionately. That is why all scales are drawn on survey maps.
Examples of Scales Used
Surveying – Character of Work
 Stages of Survey Operations

The entire work of a survey operation may be divided into three distinct stages:
• Field work- Reconnaissance, Observations, Field Records.
Field works includes major chunk of a surveyor’s exercise like establishing benchmarks as
points of reference besides recording distances along survey lines. Locating detailed features
like vegetation, roads, existing buildings, etc. establishing contour lines is also done along with
astronomical calculations to find out meridians, latitudes or longitudes. Apart from making
explanatory field notes in a field book, field notes can also comprise of numerical values such
as lengths, heights, elevation angles, etc. These can be supplemented by sketches and further
explanatory notes.

• Office work- Drafting, Computing, Designing.

Drafting mainly calls for preparation of plans and sections while computation includes
calculations for (a) purpose of plotting (b) and for determining areas and volumes. The
surveyor can also be called for doing some designing work specially in case of route surveying
& design.

• Care & adjustment of the instruments: Many instruments like level, theodolite, compass, etc. are
very delicate and must be handled carefully because once they are damaged then their
efficiency cannot be restored. Such instruments must be transported very carefully (preferably
on user’s shoulders) and they must be stored in their protective boxes when not in use. Similarly
steel tapes must be wiped before use and in no case shall we allow passage of vehicles over
them.
Accuracy & Errors
 Various Terms:

In dealing with measurements, it is important to distinguish b/w accuracy and precision.

• Precision is degree of perfection used in instruments, methods and observations.
• Accuracy is degree of perfection obtained. It depends upon: (a) Precise instruments (b) Precise
method (c) Good planning.
• The difference between a measurement & True Value of quantity measure is True Error. But True
Error is never known as the True Value of quantity is never known. Therefore, the important
function of surveyor is to secure measurements which are correct within a certain limit of error.
• Discrepancy is difference between 2 measured values of same quantity; but it is not an error. It
does not reveal magnitude of systematic errors.
• Permissible Error is maximum allowable limit that a measurement may vary from true value, or
from a value previously adopted as accurate.

Sources of Errors:
Errors may be due to 3 reasons:
• Instrumental: error may arise due to imperfect or faulty adjustment of instrument.
• Personal: error may arise due to imperfection in human sight.
• Natural: error may also be due to change in natural phenomena like temperature, humidity,
gravity, wind, magnetic declination, etc.
 Kinds of Errors

Errors can be classified into following categories:

• Mistakes: these are errors which arise due to in attention, carelessness & poor judgement of
observer and can lead to seriously misleading conclusions.
• Systematic Errors (Cumulative Errors): It is an error which under same conditions will always be of
same size. This error always follows some definite mathematical or physical law and a correction
can be determined and applied. Such error can either be treated as positive or as negative as
their impact can make result too big or too small and hence they are known as cumulative
errors.
• Accidental Errors (Compensating Errors): these remain after mistakes and systematic error have
been eliminated and can be caused by a combination of events beyond the control of
observer.