Prof. P. K. Agarwal Professor, Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia

PROF. P. K.
AGARWAL
Professor, Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia
After studying, you will learn, what is :
 What is research
 Concept of research process
 Nature of research process
 Objectives of research
 Significance of research
 Need for research
 Limitations of research
 The building blocks of research
 Science, scientific method & research
 Research stages
 Types of research
 Characteristics of good research
 Structure of research
 Inductive and deductive approaches to research
 Problem encountered by researchers in India
 Research methods
 Research methodology PROF. P. K. AGARWAL,
Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia
© P.K.Agarwal 2
 Just close your eyes for a minute and
utter the word research to yourself.
 What kind of images does this word
conjure up for you?
 How do you think does research help
you in your academic career?
 How do you think does research help a
business organization?
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 3
 The term “research” is from the French
rechercer, “to look for”, and so by extension “to
investigate”, “to [attempt to] find out”.
 This general term implies that to do research is

to discover something that was previously
completely or partially unknown or not
understood.
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL,
Contd………
© P.K.Agarwal 4
 The “something new” that is discovered
by research may be:
√ new facts about the natural world, the
built (engineered) world, or
√ human society;
√ new understanding of the processes in
these;
√ new or improved methods to investigate
the above;
√ new or improved systems;
√ new or improved models; or
√ a new synthesis (conceptual framework)
of existing facts.
P.K.Agarwal 5
 Research in common parlance refers to a
search for knowledge.
 One can also define research as a scientific
and systematic re search for pertinent
information on a specific topic.
 In fact, research is an art of scientific
investigation.
 Research is a careful investigation or
inquiry especially through search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge.
Contd…
P.K.Agarwal 6
 "Research is a systematized effort to gain
new knowledge".
Redman and Mory
 "Research is an organized enquiry
designed and carried out to provide
information for solving a problem".
Fred Kerlinger
 "Research is a careful inquiry or
examination to discover new information
or relationships and to expand and to
verify existing knowledge" .
Fransis Rummel
 "Research is essentially an investigation,
a recording and analysis of evidence for
the purpose of gaining knowledge".
Robert Ross
P.K.Agarwal 7
 Research can be defined as logical and
systematized application of the
fundamentals of science to the general and
overall questions of a study, and scientific
techniques which provide precise tools,
specific procedures and technical, rather than
philosophical means for getting and
ordering the data prior to their logical and
manipulation.
 In short, the search for knowledge
through objective and systematic method
of finding solution to a problem is
research. PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 8
P.K.Agarwal 9
 Research is an activity which is systematic
and objective in nature conducted for the
purpose of improving decision making related
to
Identification of problem
 Collection and analysis of data
 Dissemination and use of information
 Identification and solution of problems and

opportunities in market PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 10
 However, research may be defined as the
systematic and objective process of
(planning), gathering, recording, analyzing
and interpreting data to prove or disprove a
hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000).
 Important Points in this definition
◦ Research is a process
◦ Research is systematic
◦ Research is objective
◦ Research is purposeful PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 11
 Research is knowledge/Knowing the
gap between what is happening and
what we think to happen

P.K.Agarwal 12
 Research is a systematic and critical
investigation into a phenomenon.
 Itis not a mere compilation, but a purposive
investigation; it aims at describing,
interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
 It adopts scientific method.
 Itis objective and logical, applying possible
tests to validate the measuring tools and the
conclusions reached.
 It
is based upon observable experience or
empirical evidence. PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 13
 Research is directed towards finding
answers to pertinent questions and solutions to
problems.
 It emphasizes the development of

generalization, principles or theories.
 The purpose of research is not to arrive at an

answer, which is personally pleasing to the
researcher, but rather one which will stand up
the test of criticism.
 It is trans-disciplinary in nature.

P.K.Agarwal 14
 Research Extends Knowledge : Research extends
knowledge of human beings, social life and
environment. Scientists and researchers build up the
wealth of knowledge through their research findings.
They search answers for various types of questions:
What, Where, When, How and Why of various
phenomena, and enlighten us. The bodies of
knowledge have been developed by research in
general and pure or fundamental research in
particular.
 Research Unreveals the Mysteries of Nature : It brings
to light hidden information that might never be
discovered fully during the ordinary course of life.
P.K.Agarwal 15
 Research Establishes Generalizations and
General Laws: Research establishes
generalizations and general laws and
contributes to theory building in various fields
of knowledge. The knowledge of isolated events
is connected together to draw generalizations
and general laws. Law of gravitation, Law of
demand, and principles of organization such as
unity of command and scalar principle, the
theory of consumer behavior and motivation
theories are some examples for such
generalizations, laws and theories. .
 General Laws Developed through
Research: General Jaws developed through
research may enable us to make reliable
predictions of events yet to happen. P.K.Agarwal 16
 Research Verifies and Tests: Research
verifies and tests existing facts and theory, and
these help improving knowledge and ability to
handle situations and events. Merton argues:
"Empirical research goes far beyond the passive
role of verifying and testing theory. Research
plays an active role, it performs at least four
major functions-initiates, formulates, deflects,
and clarifies theory."
 Applied Research Aims at Finding
Solutions: Applied research aims at finding
solutions to problems socio-economic problems
(e.g., social unrest, unemployment, poverty)
health problems, human relations problems in
organizations and so on, Thanks to the fruits of
research, having better quality of life, longer
life span and better control over events.
P.K.Agarwal 17
 It Aims to Develop Tools & Concept :
Research also aims at developing new tools,
concepts, and theories for a better study of
unknown phenomena.
 Research Analyses Interrelationships:
Research aims to analyze inter-relationships
between variables and to derive causal
explanations and thus enables to have a. better
understanding of the world in which we live.
 Rational Decision Making: Analytical studies
of internal and external environment of
business and nonbusiness organizations provide
factual data for rational decision making-
formulation of strategies and policies. Studies of
their operational problems contribute to an
improvement in their performance.
P.K.Agarwal 18
 Research aids in planning : Research aids planning
and thus contributes to national development.
Research-social science research in particular - aids
planning in the following ways:
 Research brings out factual data on prevailing situations
and problems for drawing up plans and schemes on a
realistic basis. Research uncovers needed facts on which
sound decisions can be made before committing
resources. Studies open up the possibility of testing the
validity of planning assumptions or premises.
 Research studies enable the planners to evaluate
alternative strategies and choose the most appropriate
strategies for development of the various sectors like
agriculture, industry, education, health, social welfare
etc.
 The dissemination of research finding creates a general
awareness of the country's current situations and
problems among the public, which inspire them to
participate in formulationPROF.and implementation of
P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
development schemes. Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 19
 Research inculcates Scientific Thinking:
Research inculcates scientific and inductive
thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organization.
 Increasing Role of Research: The role of
research in several fields of applied economics,
whether related to business or to the economy
as a whole, has greatly increased in modem
times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and government has focused attention
on the use of research in solving operational
problems.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all
government polices in economic system.
P.K.Agarwal 20
 Solving Operational and Planning
Problems: Research has its special significance
in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations
research and market research, along with
motivational research-are considered crucial and
their results assist, in more than one way, in
taking business decisions.
 Important for Social Scientists: Research is
equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides
the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few
things just for the sake of knowledge and also
has practical utility for the social scientist to
know for the sake of being able to do something
better or in a more efficient manner.
P.K.Agarwal 21
►Extension of knowledge
►Bring to light information that might never be
discovered during the ordinary course of life
►Establish generalizations and general laws which
contributes to theory building
►Verify and test the existing facts and theories
►Initiate, formulate, deflect, and analyse
interrelationships between variables and to derive
causal explanations
►Find solutions to problems
►Develop new tools, concepts and theories
►Aid in planning and contributes to national development
►Disseminate research findings to create awareness of
current situations and problems
►Formulate strategies and policies
►Brings prestige to the personPROF.and the institution
►Promote progress of the society Sodo University, Ethiopia ©

P.K.Agarwal 22
 Research is there to help in decision making and is not a
substitute of decision making.
 Research can provide a number of facts, but it doesn't
provide actionable results.
 Some problems just cannot be researched, e.g., a
precise estimate of sales directly attributable to
advertising.
 It cannot provide the answer to any problem but can
only provide a set of guidelines. Thus, management will
have to consider research findings in the light of other
factors such as production, finance and personnel, in
arriving at the decision .
 Managers normally do not include research in the
overall problem or total decision making. Partial
decisions on specific issues and without proper
timing and budget may not help in satisfactory
solutions.
 Managers rely more on intuition and
Sodo University, Ethiopiajudgment
© rather
than on research.
P.K.Agarwal 23
Blend of information, experience and in-sights that
KNOWLEDGE provides a framework that can be thoughtfully
evaluated when assessing new information or
Evaluating relevant situations
Determination of relationship amongst data with a

INFORMATION view to facilitating understanding of the phenomena,
their relationships and decision-making
(e.g. past and predicted future sales trends)
Measurements of phenomena
DATA (e.g. sales statistics of a department store)
P.K.Agarwal 24
 Science…
◦ Science has been defined as “the methodological and
systematic approach to acquisition of new knowledge”
(Geoffrey Marcyzk, David DeMatteo, David Festinger)
◦ a body of established knowledge
◦ the observation, identification, investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon
 usually the ultimate goal is theory generation and
verification
 Theory…
◦ a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that
specify relations among variables to explain and
predict phenomena
◦ should be simple, consistent
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaitawith observed
relationships, tentative and verifiable
P.K.Agarwal 25
 Scientific Method…
◦ The scientific method, which has evolved since the
13th century, concerns the set of tools, techniques
and procedures used by basic and applied
researchers to analyze and understand phenomena
and prove or disprove prior conceptions
◦ involves the principles and processes regarded as
characteristic of or necessary for scientific
investigation
◦ process or approach to generating valid and
trustworthy knowledge
 Research…
◦ the application of the scientific method
◦ a systematic process of collecting and logically
analyzing information (data)
 Research Methods (Methodology)…
◦ the ways one collects and analyzes data
◦ methods developed for acquiring trustworthy
knowledge via reliable andPROF.
valid procedures
P.K.Agarwal 26
The Essence of the Scientific Method is
Characteristics of the Scientific Method

Elements of the
Objectivity Scientific Method
Systematic Analysis
Logical Interpretation of Results
Empirical Approach
Observations
Questions
Basic Hypotheses
General Laws
Research Experiments
Scientific
Method
Analysis
Applied Information or Conclusion
Research Ideas for alternative Replication
Courses of action

P.K.Agarwal 27
 What is “research” also depends on how much
is known about the subject.
 For subjects where little is known, a three-
stage approach may be appropriate:
1. A reconaissance stage of unstructured
observation;
2. A reflective stage, during which
hypotheses are generated;
3. A testing stage, where experiments or
structured observations are designed to
verify these hypotheses.
P.K.Agarwal 28
 The reconaissance stage itself can be
considered research, but only if it leads to
productive and testable hypotheses. This is a
common approach in anthropology or
descriptive linguistics: a mass of data is
recorded and then “mined” for hypotheses. At
the very least, this stage must conclude with a
conceptual framework relating the
observations.
 For a typical research project, the literature
review substitutes for the reconaissance
stage.

P.K.Agarwal 29
 The reflective stage is not by itself research;
rather, it produces research questions, and so is
part of the research process. A research that
ended with untested questions could hardly be
presented.
 Finally, the testing stage is where the
hypotheses are confronted with evidence,
giving results and answers (perhaps partial) to
the research questions.
 The conclusion of the testing stage is the
acceptance, rejection, or modification of the
hypotheses formulated in the reflective stage.

P.K.Agarwal 30
 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research
 Applied vs. Fundamental Research
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
 Conceptual vs. Empirical Research
 Exploratory vs Conclusive Research
 Other Types of Research

P.K.Agarwal 31
P.K.Agarwal 32
 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research : Descriptive
research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
 In social science and business research we quite often
use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
 Most ex post facto research projects are used for
descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita data.
P.K.Agarwal 33
 Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables.
 The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and
correlation methods.
 In analytical research, on the other hand,
the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make
a critical evaluation of the material.

P.K.Agarwal 34
P.K.Agarwal 35
Applied vs. Fundamental Research: Research can
either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research.
 Pure research also called basic research, is concerned
with quest for knowledge more about the
phenomenon, without concern for its practical use and
also with developing and testing hypotheses and
theories.
 Pure research takes place to explore a particular
concept, or issue, without regards for a specific problem,
and may be carry out to simple gain a better
understanding of the overall concept.
 It is said, there is nothing so practical as a good theory.
for example the development of a model of a coaching
behavior.
 Such research In itself have PROF.
no P.immediate
K. AGARWAL, Wolaita value beyond
contributing to an area of intellectual P.K.Agarwal
inquiry. 36
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations
and with the formulation of a theory.
 This research is concerned with search for ways of using
scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. It
focuses on analyzing and solving social and real life
problem. The finding become basis of framing
programme and policies, based on principles of pure
research.
 “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
 concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
 Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make
generalisations about human behaviour, are also
examples of fundamental research,
 but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a
solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is
an example of applied research. P.K.Agarwal 37
 The central aim of applied research is to discover
a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications
and thus, adds to the already existing organized
body of scientific knowledge.

P.K.Agarwal 38
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research : Quantitative
research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
 For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research.
 This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the
purpose. Other techniques of such research are word
association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
 Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research.
 Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behaviour.
 Through such research we can analyse the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make
people like or dislike a particular thing. P.K.Agarwal 39
P.K.Agarwal 40
P.K.Agarwal 41
Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: Conceptual research is
that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical research relies on experience or observation
alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-
based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
 We can also call it as experimental type of research.
 In such a research ( Empirical ) it is necessary to get at facts
firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get
enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets
up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons
or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterized by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through
experiments or empirical studies is today considered
Sodo University, Ethiopia © to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. P.K.Agarwal 42
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL,
© P.K.Agarwal 43
Exploratory vs Conclusive Research : This research
classification is based on the fundamental objective of
research.
Exploratory Research : When the objective of research is
to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or acquire new
insights into it in order to formulate a more precise problem
Of develop hypothesis, the exploratory studies is very
helpful.
 If the theory happens to be too general or too specific, a
hypothesis cannot be formulated.
 Therefore a need for an exploratory research is felt to
gain experience that will be helpful in formulating
relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation.
 Exploratory research is characterized by flexibility and
versatility with respect to the methods because formal
research protocol and procedure are not employed.
 Thus the creativity and ingenuity of the researcher plays a
major role in exploratory research. PROF. P. K. AGARWAL,
© P.K.Agarwal 44
 For example, a researcher in the field of Psychology is
interested in studying the influence of social environment on
mental health. The researcher is restrained from formulating
any precise hypothesis for investigation based on the writings
on this topic. In such a case the exploratory study is usually
most suitable .
 The following are the three approaches to the
exploratory study:
Survey of Literature: A review of the literature help's to
identify the hypothesis which may serve as a guide for further
investigation .
Experience Survey: A small portion of existing knowledge
and experience is put into written form. Every day experience
provides opportunity to obtain information required to
formulate hypothesis.
 Case Study : The focus may be on individuals or situations
or groups or communities. The method of study may lay stress
on the examination of the existing records. It may be
unstructured interviewing or participant observation or some
other approach.
 Exploratory study merely leads to insights for formulating
hypothesis. Its approaches do not
PROF. consider it important to test
or demonstrate them. P.K.Agarwal 45
Exploratory research
Secondary data
Experience survey
Pilot studies

P.K.Agarwal 46
Conclusive Research :
 It is typically more formal and structured than
exploratory research.
 It is based on large, representative sample
and the data obtained are subjected to
quantitative analysis.
 The findings from this research are considered
to be conclusive in nature in that they are
used as input into managerial decision
making.
 Conclusive research design may be
either:
I) Descriptive research
2) Casual Research PROF. P. K. AGARWAL,
© P.K.Agarwal 47
Descriptive Research :
 Research in which the primary purpose is to
"paint a picture" using words or numbers and to
present a profile, a classification of types, or an
outline of steps to answer questions such as
who, when, where, and how.
 It presents a picture of the specific detail of a
situation, social setting, or relationship.
 Descriptive research in contrast to
exploratory research is marked by a clear
statement of the problem, specific
hypotheses, and detailed information
needs.
 Other examples of descriptive research
are: PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 48
Market studies, which describe the size of the market,
buying power of the consumers, availability of
distributors, and consumer profiles.
Market share studies which determine the proportion of
total sales received by a company and its competitors .
Sales analysis studies, which describe sales by
geographic region, product line, type and size of the
account.
Image studies, which determine consumer perceptions
of the firm and its products .
Product usage studies, which describe consumption
patterns .
Distribution studies, which determine traffic flow
patterns and the number and location of distributors
Pricing studies, which describe the range and frequency
of price changes and probable consumer response to
proposed price changes.
Advertising studies, which describe media consumption
habits and audience profiles PROF. P. K. for
AGARWAL, specific
Wolaita television
programs and magazine. Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 49
Descriptive Research Examples
 Weight Watchers average customer
 Woman about 40 years old
 Household income of about $50,000
 At least some college education
 Trying to juggle children and a job
 Men’s fragrance market as 1/3 size of
women’s fragrance market But growing at a
faster pace
 Women buy 80 % of men’s fragrances
P.K.Agarwal 50
Causal or Experimental Research
 Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause
and effect (causal) relationships.
 In casual studies it is typical to have an
expectation of the relationship to be
explained, such as prediction about the influence
of price, packaging, advertising, and the like on
sales.
 Thus, researcher must be knowledgeable about
the research subject.
 Managers continually make decisions based on
assumed causal relationships. These assumptions
may not be justifiable, and the validity of the causal
relationships should be examined via formal
research.
 For example, the common assumption that a
decrease in price will lead to increased sales and
market share does not hold in certain competitive
environments. P.K.Agarwal 51
 Causal research is appropriate for the following
purposes:
1) To understand which variables are the cause (independent
variables) and which variables ate the effect (dependent
variables of a phenomenon
2) To determine the nature of the relationship between the
causal variables and the effect to be predicted
 Like descriptive research, causal research requires a
planned and structured design.
 Although descriptive research can determine the degree of
association between variables, it is not appropriate for
examining causal relationships, in which the causal or
independent variables are manipulated in a relatively
controlled environment.
 A relatively controlled environment is one in which the
other variables that may affect the dependent variable
are controlled or checked as much as possible.
 The effect of this manipulation on one or more dependent
variables is then measured to infer causality.
 The main method of causal research isWolaita
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, experimentation.
P.K.Agarwal 52
Cross-sectional Research Vs Longitudinal
Research :
Cross-sectional Research :
 In cross sectional research, researchers
observe at one point in time. Cross-sectional
research is usually the simplest and least costly
alternative.
 A cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of
the variables included in the study, at one
particular point in time.
 It may reveal how those variables are
represented in a cross-section of a population.
 Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory but it is most
consistent with a descriptive approach to
research. Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 53
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Research

P.K.Agarwal 54
Longitudinal Research :
 Researchers using Longitudinal research examine
features of people or other units at more than one
time.
 It usually more complex and costly than cross-
sectional research, but it is also more powerful,
especially when researchers seek answers to
questions about social change.
 Descriptive and explanatory researchers longitudinal
approaches.
 Three types of longitudinal research are as
follows:
1) Time-series Research
2) Panel Study
3) Cohort Study PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 55
 Time-Series Research : A time series design collects data on
the sane variable at regular intervals (weeks, months, years,
etc.) in the form of aggregate measures of a population.
 Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more
distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure
change in variables over time.
 For example, the Consumer Price Index (CPI), unemployment
rates, poverty rates, etc.
 Time series designs are useful for:
Establishing a baseline measure,

Describing changes over time,
Keeping track' of trends, and
Forecasting future (short-term) trends.
 Researchers inspect a time series graph to look for four
types of patterns:
Long-term trends (increases or decreases over the whole time
span);
Cyclical variation (short-term valley-to-valley or peak-to-peak
cycles);
Seasonal variations (due holidaysPROF.
orP. weather);
K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
and
Irregular fluctuations Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 56
Panel Study : It is a powerful type of longitudinal
research.
 In a panel study, the researcher observes
exactly the same people, group or organization
across time periods.
 Participants, who are examined ever repeated time
points may be affected by having previously
completed the measuring used. (This is known as
sensitization.)
 Therefore it is sometimes necessary to include a
control group matched on age and gender with
which to compare the panel group at each time
interval.
 Panel research is formidable to conduct and very
costly. Tracking people over time is often difficult
because some people die or cannot be located.
 Nevertheless, the results of a well-designed panel
study are very valuable. Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 57
Cohort Study : It is similar to the panel study but
rather than observing the exact same people, a
category of people who Share similar life
experience in a specified time period is
studied.
 Cohort analysis is "explicitly macro analytic", which
means researchers examine the category as a whole
for Important features.
 In cohort study, the individual is examined
over time may not be the same but they should
be representative of a particular group (or
cohort) of individuals Who have shared a
common experience.
 When cohort analysis design is used, a table is
constructed to display the results with column for
the time interval of data collection ( the cohort
interval), for sample age group such as 15-20 years,
21-25 years etc. P.K.Agarwal 58
Uncertainty Influences the Type of Research
CAUSAL OR DESCRIPTIVE
COMPLETELY ABSOLUTE
CERTAIN AMBIGUITY
EXPLORATORY

P.K.Agarwal 59
Uncertainty Influences the Type of Research
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research

(Unaware of Problem) (Aware of Problem) (Problem Clearly Defined)
“Our sales are declining and “What kind of people are “Will buyers purchase more of
we don’t know why.” buying our product? Who our products in a new package?
buys our competitor’s
product?”
“Would people be interested “Which of two advertising
in our new product idea?” “What features do buyers campaigns is more effective?”
prefer in our product?”

P.K.Agarwal 60
 Some Other Types of Research:
 Form the point of view of time - One-time research
and Longitudinal research- One-time research
confined to a single time-period, whereas in
longitudinal research is carried on over several time-
periods.
 Form the point of view of Research the environment
in which it is to be carried out- Field-setting
research and Laboratory research and
simulation research
 Field research is carried out in the real world, away from a
laboratory. The advantage of this type of experiment is that it
is very practical. Field experiments also allow experiments to
take place, with no confounding variables being introduced.
Field experiments are often used to study participant’s
behaviour when they have no idea they are being watched.
This allows the experimenter toPROF.
gather true
P. K. AGARWAL, data.
Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 61
 In Lab experiments the environment and
variables can be controlled, however this may
lead to a lack of external validity. This refers
to ability to generalize a set of results from a
small study to the real world. Laboratory
experiments manipulate the independent
variable, and this manipulation indicates a
cause and effect relationship.
 In simulation research, we construction of

an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated

P.K.Agarwal 62
Clinical and Diagnostic research : Such research
follow case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
Such studies usually go deep into the causes of
things or events that interest us, using very small
samples and very deep probing data gathering
devices.
 Clinical research is a branch of healthcare science
that determines the safety and effectiveness
(efficacy) of medications, devices, diagnostic
products and treatment regimens intended for
human use. These may be used for prevention,
treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a
disease
 Diagnostic research is research to determine if a
test can accurately detect or diagnose a disease. It
involves several steps that determine whether the
test is useful or not. The goal is more accurate
detection than had been previously available.
P.K.Agarwal 63
Exploratory and Formalized Research : The objective
of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas
formalized research studies are those with substantial
structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical
sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and
groups at any remote point of time.
Conclusion-oriented and Decision-oriented
Research :While doing conclusion oriented research, a
researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the
enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize
as he wishes.
 Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a
decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free
to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
Operations research is an example of decision oriented
research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments With a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operationsPROF.Sodo
under University,their
Ethiopia © control.
P.K.Agarwal 64
P.K.Agarwal 65
 Purpose Clearly Defined
 Concepts can commonly be used
 Procedures should be described
 Procedures should be well designed to meet the
Objectives
 Researcher should be frank to mention the
flaws of research
 Analyst of data should be adequate to reveal
significance
 Conclusions in the light of objectives
 A reputed researcher brings Greater confidence
in research PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 66
The "hourglass" notion of research
begin with broad questions

narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions

P.K.Agarwal 67
Deductive Reasoning
 Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are
mammals.
 Therefore every rabbit has lungs.
 It is bottom to top approach.
Inductive Reasoning
 Rabbit that has been observed has lungs.
 Therefore every rabbit has lungs.
 It is Top to Bottom approach
P.K.Agarwal 68
 The main difference between inductive and deductive
approaches to research is that whilst a deductive approach
is aimed at testing theory, an inductive approach is
concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from
the data.
A deductive approach usually begins with a hypothesis,
whilst an inductive approach will usually use research
questions to narrow the scope of the study.
 For deductive approaches the emphasis is generally on
causality, whilst for inductive approaches the aim is usually
focused on exploring new phenomena or looking at
previously researched phenomena from a different
perspective.
 Inductive approaches are generally associated with
qualitative research, whilst deductive approaches are more
commonly associated with quantitative research.
 Themost important point to bear in mind when considering
whether to use an inductive or deductive approach is firstly
the purpose of our research; and secondly the methods that
are best suited to either test a hypothesis, explore a new or
emerging area within the discipline, or Wolaita
PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, to answer specific
research questions. Sodo University, Ethiopia ©
P.K.Agarwal 69
Deduction
Induction

P.K.Agarwal 70
Positivism
 Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods
such as social surveys, structured questionnaires
and official statistics because these have good
reliability and representativeness.
 Positivists see society as shaping the individual
and believe that ‘social facts’ shape individual
action
 In positivist research, sociologists tend to look for
relationships, or ‘correlations’ between two or
more variables. This is known as the comparative
method. PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita
P.K.Agarwal 71
Interpretivism
 Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative
methods. using methods such as unstructured
interviews or participant observation.
 Interpretivists argue that individuals are not just
puppets who react to external social forces as
Positivists believe.
 According to Interpretivists individuals are
intricate and complex and different people
experience and understand the same ‘objective
reality’ in very different ways and have their
own, often very different, reasons for acting in
the world, thus scientific methods are not
appropriate.
 The school describes what is happening in reality.

P.K.Agarwal 72
 Lack of scientific training in methodology of research
 Insufficient interaction
 Need for generating the confidence that the
information/data obtained from a respondents will not
be misused
 Research studies overlapping one another are
undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information
 Timely and adequate secretarial assistance, including
computerial assistance
 Library management & functioning is not satisfactory
at many places
 Difficulty of timely availability of published data
 Problem of conceptualization P.K.Agarwal 73
P.K.Agarwal 74
 Are the techniques/ instruments used to
develop or test theory.
 It involve processes applied to the
course of study
 Can be put into 3 groups :
►Methods which are concerned with data
collection
►Statistical techniques for establishment of
relationship between data & unknown
►Evaluating the accuracy of results obtained
P.K.Agarwal 75
 Research Methodology is :
A systematic way to solve the research
problem
Science of understanding how research is
done
Explains the use of methods to conduct
the research
Study varies steps adopted by a researcher
Researchers should know the relevant method
and which are not
P.K.Agarwal 76
P.K.Agarwal 77

Prof. P. K. Agarwal Professor, Wolaita Sodo University, Ethiopia

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PROF. P. K.

 This general term implies that to do research is

 Collection and analysis of data

 Dissemination and use of information

 Identification and solution of problems and

gap between what is happening and

what we think to happen

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

 It emphasizes the development of

 The purpose of research is not to arrive at an

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

►Promote progress of the society Sodo University, Ethiopia ©

Determination of relationship amongst data with a

Characteristics of the Scientific Method

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

 Applied vs. Fundamental Research

 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

 Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

 Exploratory vs Conclusive Research

 Other Types of Research

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

Establishing a baseline measure,

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

 In simulation research, we construction of

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

begin with broad questions

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

PROF. P. K. AGARWAL, Wolaita

 The school describes what is happening in reality.

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