Transformers

Topics
• Transformer major types, applications
• Transformer components, their important features
• Important parameters, characteristics of transformers
• Transformer ratings
• Transformer impedance
• Transformer regulation
• Transformer cooling
 Topics
• Transformer efficiency
• K Factor for transformers
• Parallel operation of transformers
• Transformer protection
• Insulation oil tests
• Dissolved gas analysis
 Topics
• Recovery voltage measurement
• Thermography inspection
• Partial discharge technique
 Transformers – Major types
• Power Transformer
• Distribution Transformer
• Zig-Zag Transformer
• Furnace Transformer
• Instrument Transformers
 Power Transformer

• Used for Transmission and Distribution

• Low variation of load over operating period
• Operating close to rated capacity
• Maximum efficiency close to rated capacity
 Distribution Transformer
• Installed at the end of power networks
• Load variation over operating period
• Operating around middle of full rated capacity
• Maximum efficiency around middle of full
rated capacity
 Zig-Zag transformer
• Create artificial neutral (e.g. For Delta
connected secondary of Transformers)
• Provide Auxiliary Supply
Zig-Zag Transformer

9
Transformer Components,
Important Features
 Transformer Core
• Laminated construction
• High permeability
• Low loss
• Grain oriented silicon steel
• Core type, shell type
 Transformer Core
Core Steel
– Amorphous steels are comparatively better steel
for use - Consist of 80% iron and 20% boron and
silicon
– Formed as thin ribbons
– Cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGO)
– Core losses around 1.5 watts/kg
 Amorphous Core
• Ideally suited for renewable energy applications (wind, solar
power) - Typically operate with 20~40% low load conditions
• Non-crystal substance created by rapid freezing – Low hysteresis
loss
• Thickness approximately 0.03mm (about 1/10 compared with
silicon steel) – Low eddy current losses
• Total no load loss can be decreased to about 1/5 of silicon steel's

Source: Hitachi
 Transformer Windings
• Winding materials
– Electrolytic grade Copper and Aluminium
– Copper most preferred winding material
• Comparison of copper with aluminium in transformer
windings
Property COPPER ALUMINIUM

Electrical conductivity at 20 °C 100% 62%

Weight at 20 °C 100% 33%

Melting point 1083°C 660°C
Mechanical strength 2250 Kgf/cm2 915 Kgf/cm2
Thermal conductivity 0.941 cal/cm2 0.57 cal/cm2
Specific heat 0.003 cal/gm°C 0.21 cal/gm °C
 Transformer Insulation
• Transformer insulation subjected to:
– High temperatures due to loads, faults
– High electrical stresses due to nature of power source, loads,
etc.
• Life of transformer relies on design, condition of insulation,
ability to withstand above conditions
• Oil filled transformers use both solid (cellulose/ paper) and
liquid (oil) as insulation
• Major insulation items used in transformers:
– Mineral oil
– Kraft Paper/ Press Board/ Wood (cellulose products)
Transformer oil – (New oil requirements)
Typical acceptable characteristics for transformer oil as per IS Standard IS.335

Transformer New Oil properties Acceptable value (New oil)

Kinematics viscosity at 27oC 27CST Max.

Minimum flash point 140oC

Maximum pour point - 6oC

Density at 29.5oC 0.89 g/cm2 Max

Transformer oil – (New oil requirements)
Typical acceptable test characteristics for transformer oil as per IS Standard IS.335

Transformer Oil Tests Acceptable value (New oil)

Color and appearance Clear, & transparent & free from suspended
matter or sediments
Dielectric strength (Breakdown 30 kV (rms) Min.
voltage) test
Moisture content test 50 ppm Max.
Acidity (Neutralization value) 0.03 mg KOH/gm Max.
test
Dielectric dissipation factor (Tan 0.002 Max.
) test
Interfacial tension test (IFT test) 0.04 N/m Min.
Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Nil
 Uninhibited and Inhibited Oils
• Uninhibited oil:
– “Straight" mineral oils, containing no additives but achieving
their desired characteristics by careful selection of crude and
refining technique
• Inhibited oil:
– Contain small amounts of additive called antioxidant to
inhibit oxidation thereby increasing chemical stability
• Caution (monitoring of aging of inhibited oils):
– End of life characteristics - Service life likely to be extended
by inhibition but rate of aging tends to be greater than that
of uninhibited oil once inhibitor is depleted
 Inhibitor in Transformer Oil
• Potentially corrosive sulphur in oil
• Transformer failure due to copper sulphide formation -
Deposition of copper sulphide (Dibenzyl Disulfide
(DBDS)) on conductors and in insulation paper
• Mitigation for corrosive sulphur contaminated oil
– Passivation, normally using Irgamet 39 or 1, 2, 3-
benzotriazole (BTA) - Reacts with copper conductors to form
complex layer around copper, preventing it from interacting
with DBDS compounds
Inhibitor content in Transformer Oil
(IEC 60422-2013, 3rd edition)
 Actions for Corrosive Oil
• Conduct risk assessment
• Reduce corrosivity of oil by adding copper
passivator (e.g. triazole derivates)
or
• Remove source of corrosivity by:
− Changing the oil
− Removing corrosive compounds by mean of
suitable oil treatments
 Passivator content
Criteria Judgment
>70 and stable, (rate of decrease Good:
<10mg/kg/year) Less frequent monitoring acceptable
50-70 mg/kg or <70 mg/kg, with Fair:
significant rate of decrease of Maintain regular monitoring
>10mg/kg/year

<50 and decreasing at >10mg/kg/year Poor:

Remove source of corrosivity by changing
the oil [see 12] or by removing corrosive
compounds by mean of suitable oil
treatments, or as a short-term solution,
top up with new passivator, to at least
100mg/kg
 Transformer Bushing
• Unfilled type bushing
• Oil filled bushing
• Solid bushing
• Porcelain bushing
• Ceramic bushing
• Resin bonded paper insulated bushing
• Oil impregnated paper insulated bushing
• Capacitor type bushing
Bushing - Capacitor type
Breather
• Blue colour silica gel – May cause
cancer (Blue colour is given by
Cobalt)
– Getting replaced by orange
colour dessicant
• Transformer insulation oil may
contain PCB. Can cause cancer
– Maximum permissible level of
PCB is 50ppm
Conservator Tank
On Load Tap Changer
• Selector switch and divertor
switch
• Diverter switch is controlled
by a motor
• Ensures that switch is
stepped up or down from
one tap to next tap(s) until
desired secondary voltage is
obtained
 On Load Tap Changer
• Primary with full capacity taps controlled by externally
controlled On-Load tap changer
• Tap Steps – 7
• Voltage per step - 2.5 %
• Diverter switch mounted in separate oil tank
• Diverter switch oil tank accessible from top
• Fitted with pressure relief diaphragm with DPDT alarm
contacts
Important Parameters,
Characteristics
 Winding Connections
• 3 phase transformer windings connected either
in Star or in Delta with 120 degree phase
displacement
• Phase-shift can take place through transformer
from primary to secondary based on method
chosen for primary and secondary connections
 Winding Connections
Vectorial representation of Delta and Star configuration

Phase shift of a three phase transformer

 Delta-Star and Star-Delta Connection
• Delta – Star connection:
• At the generator end where voltages are stepped up from
generator to high value
• Where single phase loads are to be fed on secondary side between
phase and neutral
• Star Delta connection:
• Where line to line voltage is to be stepped down considerably with
introduction of 3 factor on the line to line voltage in Y connection
• Delta connection requires 3 times more turns on each limb
compared to star connection
• Star winding requires to carry 3 times more current compared
to Delta winding
 Star- Star Connection
• Mostly used in the case of bigger transformers
and for transformers having less single-phase
connections
• Neutral of these transformers can not be
loaded beyond 10% of rated current
 Star- Star Connection
• Disadvantages:
– Introduction of third harmonic currents to loads
– Limitation for connecting single phase loads
• Advantages
– Insulation can be graded towards neutral end - makes cost
comparatively lower
– For Y connected generators, Y connection on primary side of
transformers eliminates the distortions in secondary voltage
by interconnecting neutrals of generator and Y connected
primary
 Delta-Delta connection
• Used in large power rated transformers for low
voltage applications as insulation cost is not a major
economical issue
• Third harmonic current flows in delta windings
without flowing on line side
• Secondary voltages will not have any phase
displacement with respect to primary end
 Transformer Impedance
• Percentage Impedance - Percentage of nominal voltage in
primary required to circulate rated current in secondary
• Normally expressed as percentage voltage drop in transformer
at full load current
%Z = [ (IFL * Z )/ E ] x 100
– (Z = (R2 + X2), R and X are transformer resistance and leakage
reactance)
– IFL and E are full-load current and open-circuit voltage of either primary
or secondary windings
 Transformer Impedance

%X max value

15 %

10 % min value

5%
Trafo
1 MVA 10 MVA 100 MVA capacity
 Transformer Impedance
%X

15 %

10 %

5%
Trafo voltage
1 kV 10 kV 100 kV
 Typical % reactance values for
transformers
Primary Voltage
Reactance % at MVA rating
MVA Rating up to 11kV 22kV 33kV 66kV 132kV
0.25 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.5
0.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.5
1.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 6.0 7.0
2.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.5 7.5
3.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 8.0
5.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.5
10.0 & above 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
 Transformer Equations
• Transformer MVA = √3 x kV x A/1000
• Transformer impedance = Z% x kV2/MVA
• Conversion of impedance from HV to LV
Impedance on LV = Total impedance on HV x LV2/HV2
• Short circuit fault current on LV side = LV/(√3 x LV
impedance)
Transformer Regulation

Voltage

100
%
load
100 %
 Regulation
Due to transformer impedance, voltage drop in secondary
terminal voltage as load current increases
V2 = E2 - I2 * Z
V2n1 = Secondary terminal voltage at No-load
V2f1 = Secondary terminal voltage at Full-load
Change in secondary terminal voltage from No-load to Full load =
V2n1 - V2f1
This change divided by V2n1 is known as Regulation
% regulation = (V2n1-V2f1) *100/ V2n1
 Transformer K-Factor

K-Factor =

• Consideration up to 25th harmonics is found to be

reasonable and adequate
• UL-156 lists common K factors and define their
requirements - Standard values are K-1, K-4, K-9, K-
13, K-20, K-30, K-40
• Higher K factor indicates better ability to withstand
higher harmonic loads without getting overheated
 Transformer K-Factor
• K-1 No harmonics/Non linear loads
• K-4 50% Non-Linear Load
16.7% of rated current at 3rd Harmonic
10.0% of rated current at 5th Harmonic
7.1% of rated current at 7th Harmonic
5.6% of rated current at 9th Harmonic
Transformer Cooling Method Designations
• Represented by letters depending upon cooling medium,
natural/forced air cooling, natural/forced oil cooling, etc.
• Internal cooling medium designations:
 O – Mineral oil or synthetic liquid oil
 L – Insulating oil, which has flame retardant characteristic
 Method of cooling with oil designated as following
⁻ N – Natural flow through windings
⁻ F – Forced circulation of oil by external pumps to speed up cooling
process
⁻ D – Forced but directed into main windings
• External medium used for transfer of temperature can be
designated as follows
 A – Air
 W – Water
IEC Standard Designations for Cooling
Methods
Designation Method of cooling
ONAN Oil natural and air natural
ONAF Oil natural but air forced
OFAF Oil and air forced
ONWF Oil natural but external water forced
OFWF Both oil and water forced
ODAF Oil directed through windings and air forced
OFAN Oil forced but air natural
LNAN Flame retardant liquid with natural cooling
LNAF Flame retardant liquid and air forced
LFAF Flame retardant liquid forced along with air
LFAN Flame retardant liquid forced but natural air
LNWF Flame retardant liquid with forced water
LFWF Flame retardant oil and water forced
 Transformer Losses
Main losses:
• Core losses:
– Eddy current losses and hysteresis losses - Almost
constant irrespective of load
• Copper losses:
– I2 R losses of windings vary with load current
 Transformer Core Losses
Core losses (iron losses):
• Losses due to properties of core material
– Hysteresis loss - Due to hysteresis effect of core
(About 75% of total core loss)
– Eddy current loss - Due to flow of eddy currents in
core material
 Transformer Efficiency
• Ratio of power output fed by secondary to power
input in primary
Output
Efficiency =
Input

Losses
= 1
Input
 Transformer Efficiency
• Transformer efficiency at fraction of load “x” and
power factor cos given by:

x  Transformer KVA Cos 

Efficiency =
( x  Transformer KVA Cos  )  Iron Loss  Copper Loss

• Maximum efficiency of transformer achieved when

Iron Losses = Copper Losses
 Transformer Efficiency
Following results were obtained on a 50kVA transformer:
Open circuit test:
– Primary voltage = 3300V
– Secondary voltage = 400V
– Power consumption = 430W
Short circuit test:
– Primary voltage = 124V
– Primary current = 15.3A
– Primary power = 525W; Secondary current = Full load current

Calculate the total losses and efficiency:

a) At full load for 0.7 power factor
b) At half load for 0.7 power factor
 Transformer Efficiency
Iron Losses = Poc
=> 430W
Copper Losses = Psc
=> 525W
Total power loss = Poc + n2 * Psc
=> Total loss on full load = 430W + (1)2 * 525W = 0.955 kW
=> Total loss on half load = 430W + (0.5)2 * 525W = 0.561 kW
 Transformer Efficiency
Efficiency
= ((Load)*(Transformer KVA)*(Power Factor))/
(((Load)*(Transformer KVA)*(Power Factor)) + (Iron Loss) +
(Copper Loss))
= ((1)*(50kVA)*(0.7))/ (((1)*(50kVA)*(0.7)+(Total Power Loss))
= Efficiency on full load = ((1)*(50kVA)*(0.7))/ (((1)*(50kVA)*(0.7) +
(0.955 kW))
= Efficiency on full load = (50kVA)*(0.7))/ (50kVA)*(0.7) + (0.955
kW)
 Efficiency on full load = 35/ 35.955 = 0.9734 per unit
 Efficiency on full load = 97.34 %
 Transformer Efficiency
=> Efficiency on half load = ((0.5)*(50kVA)*(0.7))/
(((0.5)*(50kVA)*(0.7) + (0.561 kW))
=> Efficiency on half load = (25kVA)*(0.7))/ (25kVA)*(0.7) +
(0.561 kW)
=> Efficiency on half load = 17.5/ 18.061 = 0.9690 per unit
=> Efficiency on half load = 96.90 %
Power Transformer with On-Load Tap
changer
3-phase, 16.5/ 20 MVA, 33/11 kV, Two winding
ONAF Dyn11, 20% Impedance

Specifications
 Electrical Specifications
Rating
MVA Rating : 16.5/ 20 MVA, 3 Phase, 50 Hz
Voltage : Primary - 33 kV
Secondary - 11 kV
% Impedance on base : 20 %
Temperature rise (average) : 65ºC
Basic Insulation Level : Primary - 200 kV
Secondary - 75 kV
Elevation : Sea Level
Min./ Max Ambient Temp. : 0ºC / 40ºC
Seismic Zone : UBC Zone 1
Explosion Hazardous Area : Non Hazardous (unclassified)
Sound Level : 65 dB (A)
Liquid storage system : Conservator Tank
Parallel Operation - Not required
 Electrical Specifications
High Voltage Winding
Nominal System Voltage : 33 kV
Frequency : 50 Hz
Connection : Delta
Short Circuit Level : 1500 MVA
Taps : 7 Taps
Termination : Bushing location - Top
Bushing Terminal Type - Spade
Spade Terminal - 4 hole
- 2 hole
Cable entry : Bottom

Primary Disconnecting Link: Adequate space in primary disconnecting link

enclosure for termination of two 33 kV cables for each phase
 Electrical Specifications
Low Voltage Winding
Nominal System Voltage : 11 kV
Frequency : 50 Hz
Connection : Wye
System Grounding : 400 Amps low rest. grounding, 10 sec
Short Circuit Level : 750 MVA
Angular Displacement : 30 Degrees
Termination : Bushing location - Top
Bushing Terminal Type - Spade
Spade Terminal - 4 hole
- 2 hole
Cable entry : Bottom
 Electrical Specifications
Low voltage Neutral Terminal
• Secondary neutral terminal with separate neutral
bushing terminal
• Neutral bushing provided with chamber for ground
cable connection
Neutral Grounding Resistor
Grounding resistor Rating at 11kV:
400 Amp for 10 Seconds
 Electrical Specifications
• Bus Duct Connection
 Secondary throat connection suitable for direct
connection to metal enclosed bus duct
• Bushing Current Transformer
 Bushing current transformer for Neutral bushing and
Primary bushings
 Accuracy rating as per stipulated Standard
 Type of Cooling
Insulation :Liquid
Liquid Type :Mineral Oil
Class :
ONAN
Fan Control :Fans provided
Pump Control :Not applicable
Alarms :Temperature alarms
( Range: 65 ºC ~ 110ºC) - Oil, winding
Supply voltages : Fans - 110 volts
Control voltage - 110 volts
Fan motor - 3 phase, TEFC, Class F insulation, Class B
temperature rise
Transformer Neutral Earthing Resistor/
Neutral Earthing Transformer
Ratings:
Current
• Rated continuous current: (A)
• Rated short time current (10 secs): (kA)
• Rated cont. voltage across reactor: (V)
• Service conditions:
• Max. ambient temp.: (°C)
• Max. service altitude: (m)
• Temp. rise limit at rated continuous current: (°C)
Transformer Neutral Earthing Resistor/
Neutral Earthing Transformer
• Thermal class of insulation:
• Cooling method:
• Rated freq.: (Hz)
• Rated impedance at 25°C: (Ω)
• Insulation level:
• Power freq. withstand voltage: (kV)
• Lightning impulse level: (kV)
• Minimum creepage distance of insulators: (mm)
 Major factors in selection, sizing of
Transformers
• Transformation from which voltage to which voltage
• Power requirement to be met presently and foreseeable future
(kVA, MVA) - Connected load, Demand factor and Diversity factor
• Power factor of load to calculate kVA, MVA rating of transformer
• Harmonic content of loads – Transformer needs derating for
harmonic loads (K factor)
• Need for supply of high currents for short duration (Starting of
large motors)
 Major factors in selection, sizing of
Transformers
• Unbalance in phase currents of loads – Transformers supplying
single phase loads tend to have more phase unbalance
• Configuration of windings – Delta, star (Need for neutral,
filtering of 3rd harmonic currents, tertiary winding for auxiliary
supply etc.)
• Need for paralleling of transformers - Parallel operated
transformers have to meet criteria (same primary and secondary
voltages, percentage impedances within a range, power ratings
within a band etc.)
 Major factors in selection, sizing of
Transformers
• Type of neutral earthing based on magnitude of earth
fault currents, suppression of transient voltages, system
insulation etc.
− Solid earthing
− Resistance earthing
− Reactance earthing
− Tuned reactance earthing
• Percentage impedance from point of reducing fault
levels - Higher percentage impedance reduces fault
levels
 Major factors in selection, sizing of
Transformers
• Need for voltage adjustment: On-line or Off-line tap
changer
• Voltage regulation and efficiency
• Indoor or outdoor application
• Ambient temperature – Type of cooling ONAN, ONAF
etc.
• Insulation medium – Oil, epoxy dry type (Dry type is
maintenance free, does not pose fire hazards, spill
hazards)
 Major factors in selection, sizing of
Transformers
• Level of protections based on criticality of
transformer
• Mounting – Pole mounting, plinth mounting
• Level of pollution in environment – Bushing design,
selection depends on pollution level
• Altitude of installation – Derating for installation
above 1000 metres
 Transformer Capacity Calculation
Total Connected Load = Total Motor Load + Total Static Load = 530 kVA
Total Demand Load = Total Motor load + Total Static Load
= 326 + 101 = 427 kVA
Total Demand Load (Motor) = 326 kVA
Diversity Factor = 1.05
Total Diversity Load (Motor) = 310 kVA
Total Demand Load (Static) = 101 kVA
Diversity Factor = 1
Total Diversity Load = 101 kVA
Total Diversity Load = 310 + 101 = 411 kVA
10% Load Growth Factor = 41.15 KVA
Total Load = 453 kVA
Capacity of Transformer = 475 kVA
 Life Cycle Cost of Transformer
Need to consider costs of:
• Purchasing vs
• Lift, operating and maintaining transformer
• Net present value
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
• Compare the prices of two 1500kVA
transformers: One normal transformer and
one energy efficiency transformer.

Transformer Type No load losses Load losses Purchase price

(Rs)

Normal 2800 watts 15207 watts 15,00,000

Transformer

Energy Efficient 2500 watts 11218 watts 18,00,000

Transformer
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
TCO = PP + A*PO + B*PK
• PP – Purchase price of transformer
• A – Assigned cost of no load losses per watt
• PO – Rated no load loss
• B – Assigned cost of load losses per watt
• PK – Rated load loss
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
• A and B depend on expected loading of
transformer and energy prices
• Rate of interest = 10%
• Life of transformers = 10 years
• Average energy cost = Rs 6/- per kWh
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
• No load loss capitalization
(1+i)n – 1
A = ----------------- x CkWh x 8760
i(1+i)n

• Load loss capitalization

(1+i)n – 1 IL 2
A = ----------------- x CkWh x 8760 x ----
i(1+i)n IR
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
i – Interest rate (% per year)
n – Life of transformer (years)
CkWh – Cost of energy (Rs/kWh)
8760 – Number of hours in an year
IL – Average load current of transformer
IR – Rated load current of transformer
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
• No load loss capitalization
(1+i)n – 1
A = ----------------- x CkWh x 8760
I x (1+i)n

I = 0.1
n = 10 years
CkWh = Rs 6/- per kWh
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
• Calculating by substituting the values we find
that
A = 322929
B = 158235
• TCO (Trans Normal)
= 1500000 + (322929 x 2.8) + (158235 x 15.2)
TCO (Trans Efficient)
= 1800000 + (322929 x 2.5) + (158235 x 11.2)
 Transformer – Capitalization Cost
• TCO (Trans Normal) = Rs 4809373
• TCO (Trans Normal) = Rs 4382402

Conclusion:
• TCO of energy efficient transformer is low
• Energy efficient transformer is preferable
 Transformers – Parallel Operation
• Two or more transformers connected to same busbars,
especially on load side
– Redundancy to maintain continuous power supply
– Widely used in power stations, continuous process
plants
• Main Conditions:
– Same phase angle shift between primary and
secondary terminals
– Same voltage ratio, percentage impedance (10%
tolerance), same polarity and phase sequence
– Capacity not differing beyond 1:3 with respect to
each other
 Impedances for Parallel Connection
• Paralleling of two identical transformers reduces
combined impedances to half that of individual
transformers, resulting in increase of fault level
• To be taken into consideration while designing
distribution equipment and protective relaying for
transformers operated in parallel
 Paralleling of Transformers
• Two transformers rated 750 KVA and 1000 KVA with impedance
values of 6% and 8% are operated in parallel with same primary
and secondary voltages.
– Calculate the net impedance and load shared by each
transformer at 1200 KVA load.
S S1 S 2
 
Z Z1 Z 2

Where S1 and S2 are the capacities and Z1 and Z2 are the respective
impedances.
Parallel operation of Transformers
 Parallel operation of Transformers
1750/Z = 750/0.06 + 1000/0.08
= 12500 + 12500 = 25000

Net impedance value = 1750/25000 = 0.07 (i.e. 7%)

Note: The impedance value of one transformer is more than 10% of

the other transformer. Hence the parallel operation will fail if the load
is more close to the full sum capacity of transformers.
 Parallel operation of Transformers
Load on 750 kVA transformer = 68.6% x 750 x 7/6
= 600 kVA
Load on 1000 kVA transformer = 68.6% x 1000 x 7/8
= 600 kVA
• Transformers share loads equally. But 750 kVA
transformer is loaded 80% of its capacity while 1000
KVA transformer is loaded to 60% of its capacity.
• That is if 750 kVA transformer has 8% Z and 1000 kVA
transformer has 6% Z
 Transformer Protection
• IDMT relays are not for Overload protection
• Recommended protections:
– IDMT overcurrent and earth fault
– Buchholz gas and surge relay
– Oil and winding temperature
– HV high set instantaneous overcurrent (I>>)
– HV and LV restricted earth fault
– Differential protection

85
Over Pressure Protection
 Transformer Fire Protection
• Using inert gas extinguishing system with a gas
(Nitrogen)
• Water sprinkler systems for large power transformer
installations
• Surfaces of chipping and drainage sump to transport
away any oil spillage that could potentially fuel a fire
• Fire walls
Transformer Fire Protection – Nitrogen
Purge

Fire extinguishing system using Nitrogen gas

Transformer Fire Protection – Water
Spray
Transformer Fire Wall
 Transformer Fire Wall
• Reasons for separation and segregation:
– Damage caused shall be restricted to transformer
alone
– Shall not interfere with any other unit assemblies in
vicinity
– To prevent oil splash over to adjacent transformer
in case of severe faults leading to transformer blasts
and fires
 Transformer Fire Wall
• More than one transformer
• Having more than 2000 litres of oil installed side by
side
• Baffle walls of minimum 4 hr fire rating shall be
provided between transformers
• Thickness of wall shall be minimum 30 cm (Brick) or
20 cm (RCC)
• Segregated from HT and MV switchgears using fire
separation wall
 Transformer Protection
• HV high set instantaneous overcurrent
• LV overcurrent and earth fault
• Differential protection
• HV and LV restricted earth fault
• Buchholz gas and surge relay
• Oil and winding temperature
 Transformer Faults
• HV and LV bushing flashovers (external to
tank)
• HV winding earth fault
• LV winding earth fault
• Inter-turn fault
• Core fault
• Tank fault
 Overcurrent Protection
HV Overcurrent
• Most common protection employed in transformer
• Protects against excess withdrawal of currents from source
than rated/design values
• Uses IDMTL (Inverse Definite minimum Time) overcurrent
and earth fault relay on the HV side
• Operating time varies inversely with respect to current values
• Protecting part of winding like unit protection by virtue of
setting
 HV Overcurrent Protection
Fault current as seen from HV side
 Fault Current Value
• Level of fault currents due to winding fault
dictated by:
– Source impedance
– Method of neutral earthing
– Leakage reactance
– Position of fault in winding (i.e. fault
voltage)
 HV Overcurrent
• Ensure that elements do not pick up and trip for
faults on LV side (discrimination)
• I>> element should be set to approximately 125%
of maximum through fault current of transformer
• Relay looks into, but not through the transformer,
protecting part of winding..thus behaving like Unit
Protection by virtue of its setting
 Transformer Short Circuit Currents
• Transformer windings are subjected to mechanical,
thermal stresses during:
– Internal short circuits and
– System short circuits outside the terminals
• Transformer short circuit current during faults depend
on system parameters and own impedance
• Transformer windings and construction shall take care
of such short circuits which need to be considered at
design stage itself
 Transformer Short Circuit Currents
• First cycle asymmetrical peak current during various
fault conditions shall be considered for short circuit
current capacity requirement
• Can be around 2.55 times symmetrical fault current
• Necessary to have clear knowledge on system
parameters like sub transient reactance of source
generators, earthing method, Impedance of directly
connected apparatus, etc. to decide short circuit
currents to be handled by a transformer
 Transformer Short Circuit Currents
• Normally duration of 2 seconds of short circuit current
is considered for transformer design unless client
specifically asks to consider higher/ lower duration
depending on his backup protection
• Short circuit withstand capacity is normally based on
maximum allowable temperature rise of windings
under short circuits.
 Transformer Short Circuit Currents
• IEC specifies a maximum permissible temperature (Not
the rise) of 250°C for copper windings and 200°C for
aluminium windings
• Short Circuit test is normally a Type test
• Necessary to ensure that manufacturer has
successfully carried out short circuit tests on similar
units while ordering
 Transformer Short Circuit Currents
• Failure of transformer due to short circuits is more
because of mechanical forces produced on windings
under short circuits rather than thermal damage on
insulation
• Electromagnetic force varies directly in line with square
of current
– 20 times the normal current during short circuit will
produce 400 times the normal stress
– Design to take care of such high forces
 Transformer Short Circuit Currents
• Vertical and axial forces during short circuits cause HV
and LV windings to shift with respect to each other,
which in turn increases magnetic flux of system and
associated stresses
• Furnace transformers and rectifier transformers are
subjected to many short circuit operations
• More attention is required in design of these
transformers to avoid deformation of windings even
under normal operations
Magnetic Stray Field & Forces
Short Circuit Effect – Radial Collapse
 Earth Faults
• Effectively Earthed Neutral
– Fault current controlled mainly by transformer
leakage reactance, which varies in complex manner
depending on position of fault in winding
– Reactance decreases towards neutral. Current
actually rises for faults towards neutral end.
 Earth Faults
Fault current to fault position from earth neutral
 Earth Fault Current
Non Effectively Earthed Neutral
– Fault current varies linearly with fault position, as resistor is the
dominant impedance
– Limits the maximum fault current to approximately full load current
 Transformer Differential Protection
• CTs on primary connected in Star while those in
secondary are connected on Delta to offset the phase
shift in two windings
 Transformer Inrush Current
• Inrush current magnitude depends on magnitude and
polarity of residual flux as well as on magnitude/
Phase angle of primary AC voltage while switching ON
• Under normal conditions, magnetizing current
required to produce necessary flux is small
• Less than 1% of full load current
Transformer Magnetizing In-rush
Current
 Differential Protection
Factors to be considered:
• Transformer Vector Group (i.e. phase shift between
HV and LV)
• Mismatch of HV and LV CT characteristics
• Varying currents due to OLTC
• Magnetizing in-rush currents (from source side)
• Possibility of zero sequence current de-stabilizing
the differential for an external earth fault
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection
• Simple overcurrent and earth fault relay will
not provide adequate protection for winding
earth faults
• Need to have separate earth fault protection
• Degree of ground fault protection improved
by application of unit differential or restricted
ground fault systems
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection
• Both windings of transformer can be protected
separately with restricted earth fault protection
• Provides high speed protection against earth
faults over the whole of transformer windings
• Instantaneous high impedance relay used
 Stability of Current Balance Scheme
• Use of High Impedance Relays
• Relay voltage setting shall be more than voltage
appearing during through faults
• Assumption on CT saturation
• Class X CTs
• Protection against Excessive High Voltages
 Combined Differential and Restricted
Earth Fault Protection
• Can combine both Differential and Restricted
ground fault protections onto one set of line
CTs
• Save expense of providing separate cores for
each protection system
• Interposing CTs used
Combined Differential and Restricted
Earth Fault Protection
 Inter-Turn Faults
• Insulation between turns can break down due to
electro-magnetic / mechanical forces on winding
causing chafing or cracking
• Ingress of moisture into oil can also be a contributing
factor
 Core Faults
• Heavy fault currents can cause core laminations to
move, chafe and possibly bridge causing eddy
currents to flow - Can generate serious overheating
• Additional core loss does not produce noticeable
change in line currents. Cannot be detected by
electrical protection system.
• Intense localized heat damages winding insulation
breaking oil into gas
 Tank Faults
• Loss of oil through leak in tank can cause
reduction of insulation
• Can lead to overheating on normal load due to
loss of effective cooling
 Buchholz Protection
• Failure of winding insulation may cause arcing which
can decompose oil into Hydrogen, acetylene and
methane
• Localized heating can precipitate breakdown in oil into
gas
• Severe arcing will cause rapid release of large volume
of gas as well as oil vapor
• Buchholz relay can detect both gas and oil surges
Buchholz Protection
Buchholz Relay
 Transformer Overloads
• Sustained overloading reduces transformer life
• Operating Temperatures also decide the transformer oil life
• Operating Temperature Oil Life
60 deg C 20 years
70 deg C 10 years
80 deg C 5 years
90 deg C 2.5 years
100 deg C 13 months
110 deg C 7 months
Oil Temperature Measurement
Winding Temperature Measurement
Winding Temperature Measurement
 Transformer Overload Protection
• Alarm and Trip settings for oil and winding temperature
MUST for transformer protection
• Recommended temperature settings:(Unless otherwise
recommended by the manufacturer).
– Winding temperature alarm : 1100C
– Winding temperature trip : 1200C
– Oil Temperature Alarm : 950C
– Oil Temperature Trip : 1050C
 Transformers in Service
• Transformer breakdowns can be avoided by adopting
Standard operating procedures and recommended
maintenance practices
• Factors causing failure of transformer:
– Overload
– Incorrect installation or use
– Faulty design or construction
– Neglect
– Wear and tear and other deterioration
– Accidents
 Transformer Inspection
• Rigorous system of inspection and preventive
maintenance ensures long life, trouble-free
service and low maintenance cost
• Maintenance consists of regular inspection,
testing and reconditioning where necessary
 Transformer Monitoring and Testing
Techniques
• IS-2026
• Winding Resistance Test
• Voltage Ratio Test
• Insulation Resistance Test
• High Voltage Withstand Test
• Induced Over Voltage Withstand Test
• No Load Loss and Current
• Load Loss and Impedance (Efficiency and Regulation)
• Vector Group Verification
• Oil Tests – IS-335
 Winding Resistance Measurement
• Decides copper losses
• Use Wheatstone bridge or Kelvin bridge
• Apply DC voltage and wait till core saturation
• Ensure windings are not in very hot condition during
measurement
• Unequal or infinity values may indicate possibility of
open winding or loose connections
 Turns Ratio Measurement
• Apply a low voltage AC on primary terminals (take
open circuit voltage readings on corresponding
secondary terminals – Ratio indicates approximate
turns ratio)
• Take readings at all tap positions
• Values should not differ by more than 0.5% (of
expected design voltage ratio)
 Polarity and Vector Group Test
• Interconnect one
terminal of secondary
with primary
• Figure shows
connections for a 3-ph
star/star transformer
with subtractive
polarity
Insulation Resistance Test
 Insulation Resistance Test
• IR values vary inversely with respect to ambient
temperature
• Measure insulation resistance for 1 min at intervals of
15 secs. Find the ratio of 1 min value with initial value.
• Value less than 1.2 indicates possibility of moisture
presence in transformer insulation and needs
corrective actions
 Insulation resistance Test
Rated Voltage KV Safe IR values in Mega ohms at
applicable ambient temperatures
300 C 400 C 500 C 600 C

66 KV and above 600 300 150 75

22 / 33 KV 500 250 125 65

6.6/11 KV 400 200 100 50

Below 6.6 KV 200 100 50 25

 Dielectric Tests
• After impulse tests if impulse tests are applicable
• Two Tests are applicable:
– Applied Potential Test at rated power frequency for
a duration of one minute
– Induced Over voltage test at higher frequency for
reduced duration
 Induced Potential Test
• To check inter turn insulation and phase to ground
insulation condition
• Twice the rated voltage for uniform insulation and 1.5
times rated voltage for graded insulation
• For one minute up to twice the frequency
• To avoid core saturation, lower voltage with 3 to 4
times rated frequency is applied which can be applied
for a lesser time per standards
 Moisture in Transformers
• Transformers use oil and paper which can contain
moisture (water)
– Oil and paper absorb moisture
– Moisture content increases over period of time
whether transformer is in service or idle
– Standards specify allowable moisture in transformer
under service. Limit moisture to these values to
avoid failures under operating voltages
– Control of moisture very much essential to keep
transformers on line continuously
 Effects of Moisture
• Life of insulation reduces by half for each doubling of
water content in oil
– Electrical discharges in high voltage region due to
imbalance in moisture equilibrium leading to
incipient faults
– Possibilities of bubble formation with gases
• Rate of thermal deterioration of paper is directly
proportional to water content
 Moisture in Transformers
Typical moisture contents of new transformers

Aver. Oil <69KV >69 KV

temperature
500 C 7ppm 2ppm
600 C 12ppm 4ppm
700 C 20ppm 7ppm
Water saturation 6% 2%
Paper moisture 1% 0.5%
 Moisture in Transformer
• Main cause - Oil subjected to temperature cycles
depending on load and ambient temperature
• Transformers absorb moisture from air when oil leaks
are not arrested properly
• Relative moisture saturation level of oil indirectly
indicates moisture content of paper
• Aging of oil (increase in acidity values) and aging of
cellulose (Decrease in DP) also reasons for moisture
 Transformer Paper Aging
• Degradation depends upon temperature, moisture
content, oxygen and acids in the system
• Heat and moisture are major issues which affect life of
paper insulation
• Moisture consists of free water, suspended water
(Trapped in oil), dissolved water and chemically bound
water ( used during manufacture), etc.
• Complete removal of moisture is impossible
 Removal of moisture in Transformer
• Filtering of transformers to some extent reduce water
content
– But 2% of moisture trapped in oil while 98% trapped in
paper/cellulose
• Filtering does not remove moisture from paper and
paper releases moisture to oil until it reaches
equilibrium state
• Continuous dry out is one effective way to remove
paper moisture but could be costlier. No other
effective method.
 Measurement of Moisture Content
• Acidity Test
− Value 0.3mg KOH/gm is often used as a warning
indicator
• Power factor test or tan  measurement
− Power factor value of 0.5% considered
unacceptable for bigger transformers at high
voltages and value of around 1% still accepted for
smaller transformers
− Constant high power factor at various voltages
indicate presence of moisture in transformer
 Measurement of Moisture Content
• IR Values
– Log-log graph with IR values against time. Good
insulation gives almost a straight-line curve
increasing with time. Moist or contaminated
insulation gives a graph, which raises slowly and
flattens out shortly.
• Polarisation index
– Ratio of 10 minutes IR to 1 minute IR. Value of 1 is
totally unacceptable and for dry type transformers,
minimum value of 2 required.
Recovery Voltage Method
Typical Recovery Voltage Spectrum
RVM Test for Transformer
 Tests on Bushings
• Power factor/tan δ test and capacitance test
– Main tests done to decide insulation property of
bushing
• PF values upto twice the rated PF value is acceptable
– Readings beyond this warrant inspection and not
accepted if values exceed 3 times (the rated value)
• A capacitance tolerance of 5% is acceptable
– Value exceeding 10% of nameplate value may lead
to rejection
 Bushing Collar Tests
• For bushings without voltage/test tap
• Collar installed beneath the top petticoat of the
bushing
• Energize the collar with 10 kV or rated value if lower
than 10 kV
• Measure the watts loss and current
• Watt losses < 100 mW and current values <10% of
rated values acceptable
 Hot Collar Test
To detect cracks in bushings
Cold Collar Test
 Need for Oil Testing
• Oxidation (due to high operating temperatures) causes
sludge
• Deterioration of oil dielectric properties
• Transformer life time depends on operating
temperature (every 10ºC rise over maximum
permitted temperature reduces the life by half)
• Necessary to avoid transformer failure
 Transformer Oil Sampling
• Arrange tools, sampling bottles, sampling syringes,
gloves and other material
• Bottles affixed with labels - Details of equipment
number, name, date, person taking sample etc
• Oil sampling done from bottom valve of tank – Any
water inside tank tends to settle at tank bottom
• Provide plastic sheet or tray below drain to prevent oil
contamination on ground
• Check for presence of PCB in oil from earlier records -
Special care needed for handling, disposal of oil if oil
contains PCB
 Transformer Oil Sampling
• Clean drain valve both inside, outside using lint free
cloth to clear grime, dirt
• Flush couple of litres of oil from drain valve to wash out
any dirt from valve. Open and close valve repeatedly to
dislodge any dirt particles in valve and flush them out.
• Dispose of oil in safe manner. Following prescribed
disposal procedures
• Open valve, collect about 30% oil in bottle, close valve
and flush bottle with collected oil. Discard oil in safe
manner and repeat flushing process.
 Transformer Oil Sampling
• In transformers where sampling valve is provided along
with drain valve, use sampling valve for collecting oil
sample
• Collect oil sample in bottle by opening valve slowly and
allowing oil to flow into bottle along sides (to prevent
entrapment of air)
• Fill bottle till it is full to about 1 to 2 cm from top.
Space provided above oil level to allow for thermal
expansion. Immediately close cap of bottle tightly.
• Close drain valve securely. Provide back plug at tip of
drain pipe.
 Transformer Oil Sampling
• Sample container to be free from contaminants
• Do not use rubber stoppers
• One litre sample covers almost all tests
• Avoid exposure to sunlight
• Avoid sampling during rain and high humid periods
• Use special SS containers for gas in oil analysis
samples
 Transformer Oil Sampling
• Store sample bottles away from sunlight in closed
container to protect from environmental conditions
 Oil Testing
• Condition and safe operation depends on testing of
oil to check following parameters and taking
corrective steps
– Colour
– Dielectric Test
– Acid Neutralization Number
– Interfacial Tension Test
– Dielectric Dissipation Factor
– Dissolved Gas Analysis
 Colour
• Specified by a number
• Lower the value the better
• Impurities change color of oil
• Typical values are:
• #1 STRAW COLOR
• #2 PALE YELLOW
• #3 YELLOW
• #4 ORANGE
• #5 RED-BROWN
• #6 BROWN
 Oil Dielectric Test
• Collect sample oil and immerse the electrodes with
2.5 mm gap
• Apply high voltage and increase till flashover, called
Break Down Voltage (BDV)
• Standard value 30 kV but new oil may have up to 80
kV
• Take sample of five or six readings
Dielectric Strength Test for Insulation Oil

Electrodes immersed in insulation oil Insulation oil breakdown voltage tester

Oil Dielectric Test

1 – Oil container
2 – Electrodes
3 – Circuit breaker (automatically
operated)
4 – Switch
Break down voltage vs Moisture/ water
 Test For Acidity
• Acids formed during oxidation affect oil’s
dielectric properties and circulation
• Deteriorates cellulose used in
transformer
• Acid neutralization number - Quantity of
base needed to neutralize acid per gm of
oil
• KOH is the base used and unit is in mg
KOH/gm
• 0.03 to 0.05 acceptable and value beyond
0.10 is unacceptable
 Interfacial Tension Test
• Pure oil floats on water
maintaining a surface
tension
• Values below 0.02 N/m
unacceptable
• On energizing value
decreases due to
dissolution of varnish, etc
(subsequent fall is due to
oil deterioration)
Changes in IFT & Acidity
 Power Factor/ Tan  Measurement
• Measures insulation characteristics
• Normally done for bigger size
transformers
• Power factor value of 0.5% is
considered unacceptable for bigger
transformers at high voltages and a
value of around 1% is still accepted for
smaller transformers
• Constant high power factor at various
voltages indicates presence of moisture
in transformers
 Life Expectancy of Transformer
• Estimation by deterioration of paper insulation
• Determination of paper insulation condition
– Furan Analysis
– Testing of Kraft paper
 Furan Analysis
• Compounds of cellulose decomposition
• Reliable method: Estimation of paper insulation life
• Furans > 250 ppb Paper insulation deterioration
• Range: 100 ppb ~ 70,000 ppb (ppb - parts per billion)
• Important Furans
– 5H2F (5-hydroxymethyl 1-2-furaldehyde) - Oxidation (aging,
heating of paper insulation)
– 2FOL (2-furfurol) - High moisture content in paper
– 2FAL (2-furaldehyde) - Overheating of paper
– 2ACF (2-acetylfuran) - (rarely observed)
– 5M2F (5-methyl-2-furaldehyde) - Local overheating (hot
spots)
 Furans, DP and % Remaining Life
55ºC Rise 65ºC Rise Estimated degree of Estimated % of Interpretation
transformer Transformer Total Polymerization (DP) Remaining Life
2FAL (ppb) Furans (ppb)
58 51 800 100 Normal aging
130 100 700 90 rate
292 195 600 79
654 381 500 66 Accelerated
1464 745 400 50 aging rate
1720 852 380 46
2021 974 360 42
2374 1113 340 38 Excessive aging
2789 1273 320 33 rate
3277 1455 300 29
3851 1664 280 24 High rate of
4524 1902 260 19 failure
5315 2175 240 13 End of expected
6245 2487 220 7 life of paper
insulation
7337 2843 200 0
 DP (Degree of Polymerization) Test
• Reliable assessment of Paper deterioration
• Cellulose - Long chains of glucose rings
• DP - Average number of rings in molecule
• DP value of new insulation - 1000 ~ 1400
• DP value ≤ 200 - End of insulation life
 DP and % of Remaining Paper Life

New insulation material 1000 DP ~ 1400 DP

60% to 66% remaining life 500 DP

30% remaining life 300 DP

Zero remaining life 200 DP

 Dissolved Gas Analysis
• Major faults in transformers – due to electrical and
thermal stresses in transformer oil or its insulation
materials
• Excessive stresses produce mixture of gases (which
dissolve in oil)
• Study on dissolved gases gives indication on type and
location of such faults
• Heating may be due to arcing, sparking and partial
discharge
 Thermal Faults
• Local over heating 150–300ºC
• Local over heating 300–1000ºC
• Local over heating >1000ºC
• Overheating of cellulose
 Dissolved Gas Analysis
• Faults in transformers produce gases like Hydrogen,
methane, ethylene, ethane, carbon di-oxide, carbon
Monoxide
• Composition of gases give indication of transformer’s
internal conditions
• Gas chromatograph used to analyse gas composition
 Gases and Fault Conditions
• Over heating of solid insulation – CO, CO2
• Over heating of liquid and solid insulation – CH4, C2H4,
CO, CO2, H2
• Arcing in oil – CH4, C2H4, H2
• Arcing of liquid and solid insulation – CO, CO2, H2, C2H2
• CH4 - Methane
• C2H4 – Ethylene
• C2H2 - Acetylene
 Combustible Gas Content
% Combustible Inference
Gas
0–1 Check every 12 months
1–2 Contamination or slight incipient fault
Take readings at 3- to 6-month intervals & check
trend
2–5 Take readings at monthly intervals
May need internal inspection
>5 Remove from service as soon as possible. Do
internal inspection. May need service in a
transformer shop.
 DGA Methods
• Permissible gas concentration limits
• Regression method
• Combustible gas method
• Key gas method
• Ratio method – Rogers & IEC
• Duval’s triangle method
 DGA – Combustible Gas Method

• 0–500 ppm Satisfactory

• 500–1000 ppm Decomposition of oil in excess of
normal aging - Monitor
• >1000 ppm Significant decomposition – frequent
. analysis required to establish trend
• >2500 ppm Substantial decomposition – possibility of
fault to be confirmed by testing/opening
 DGA - Roger’s Ratio Chart
• Evaluate ratio of gases CH4/H2, C2H2/CH4 , C2H4/C2H6,
C2H2/C2H4. Represent by 4 digits – 0 means ratio <1,
otherwise 1
• All zero – Possible partial discharge
• 1000 – Slight overheating <150ºC
• 0100 – Over heating > 200ºC < 300ºC
• 0001 – Flash over
• 0011 – Internal arcing/spark
 DGA – IEC Chart
Ratio of C2H2/C2H4, CH4/H2,C2H4/C2H6:
• No fault 0 0 0
• Partial discharge of low intensity 0 1 0
• Partial discharge of high intensity 1 1 0
• Discharge of low energy 1–2 0 1–2
• Discharge of high energy 1 0 2
• Thermal fault <150ºC 0 0 1
• Thermal fault 150 to 300ºC 0 0 2
• Thermal fault 300 to 700ºC 0 2 1
• Thermal fault > 700ºC 0 2 2
 DGA - DUVAL’S Triangle Method
• Accurate and trustworthy method using DGA for
deduction of transformer problems
• Based on database of thousands of transformers
• About one million DGA analyses performed every year
by more than 400 laboratories worldwide
• Cause determined based on percentages of
combustible gases evolved
Main Gases Analyzed in DGA
Hydrogen H2
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Ethylene C2H4
Acetylene C2H2
Carbon monoxide CO
Carbon dioxide CO2
Oxygen O2
Nitrogen N2
 Confirmation of Transformer Problem
G1 Limits G2 Limits
Gas L1 Limits
(ppm per month) (ppm per month)
H2 100 10 50
CH4 75 8 38
C 2H 2 3 3 3
C 2H 4 75 8 38
C 2H 6 75 8 38
CO 700 70 350
CO2 7000 700 3500

Gas concentration > L1 and Evolution Rate > G2

 Duval Triangle
PD - Partial Discharge

T1 - Thermal Fault less than 300°C

T2 - Thermal Fault between 300°C and

700°C

T3 - Thermal Fault greater than 700°C

D1 - Low Energy Discharge (Sparking)

D2 - High Energy Discharge (Arcing)

DT - Mix of Thermal and Electrical faults

Methane CH4
Ethylene C2H4
Acetylene C2H2
 Symbols and Problem Causes
Symbol Fault Examples
Corona discharge in voids, gas bubbles with possible formation of X-wax
PD Partial Discharge
in paper
Partial discharges of the sparking type, inducing pinholes, carbonized
Discharges of low punctures in paper
D1 energy Low energy arcing inducing carbonized perforation or surface tracking of
paper, or the formation of carbon particles in oil
Discharges in paper or oil, with power follow-through, resulting in
Discharges of high
D2 energy
extensive damage to paper or large formation of carbon particles in oil,
metal fusion, tripping of equipment and gas alarms
Thermal Fault
T1 T<300ºC
Evidenced by paper turning brownish (>200ºC) or carbonized (>300ºC)

Thermal Fault,
T2 300<T<700 ºC
Carbonization of paper, formation of carbon particles in oil

Thermal Fault, Extensive formation of carbon particles in oil, metal coloration (800ºC) or
T3 T>700ºC metal fusion (> 1000ºC)
Electrical Fault and
DT Thermal Fault
Development of one type of fault into another type of fault
 Duval Triangle Method - Example
Gas
Quantity of gas
Quantity of gas Increase in gas increase as
Name of Key Gas after fault
prior to fault quantity % of total
occurrence
quantity

C2H4 82 180 98 62.8 %

CH4 140 195 55 35.2 %

C2H2 5 8 3 1.9 %

Total Quantity of
227 383 156 100 %
gas collected
Duval Triangle - Plotting
Online Dissolved Gas Analyzer
 RIV Corona Measurements
• For ratings above 132kV
• Apply the test voltage for one hour
• 1.7 times normal voltage applied for 2 minutes and
then reduced to 1.5 times and maintained for one hour
• Radio Interference Voltages (RIV) measured at 5
minute intervals during this one hour
• RIV readings at any moment in time and at any
terminal not to exceed 100V with readings not
differing by more that 20V
 Partial Discharge
• For transformers rated 220kV and above
• To check discharges along cavities, cracks, etc.
• Caused by improper drying of insulation and due to
presence of sharp edges
• Require special equipment. 1, 3 times rated voltage
applied for 5 minutes, 1, 3 times for 5 seconds and 1.3
times the rated voltage maintained for 30 minutes
• Should be within 300 pc at 1.3 times and within 500pC
at 1.5 times the rated voltage
 Partial Discharge Tests
• Check for cavities in
transformer insulation and
is normally routine tests
for 220 kV and above for
power plant transformers
and large substation
transformers
• Customers may demand it
as type test for lesser rated
windings
Partial discharge detection in transformer
Frequency Response Analysis

Shorted turns Core magnetisation

Infrared Thermography

Transformer radiator
blockage
Standards related to Transformers
Sr. No Standard Specification
1 IS 2026 Power Transformers
2 IS 2026 (Part I) Power Transformers: Part I General
3 IS 2026 (Part II) Power Transformers: Part II Temperature rise
4 IS 2026 (Part III) Power Transformers: Part III Insulation level and dielectric
tests
5 IS 2026: (Part IV) Power Transformers: Part IV Terminal marking, tappings and
connections
6 IS 10028 (Part I) Selection of transformers
7 IS 10028 (Part II) Installation of transformers

8 IS 10028 (Part III) Maintenance of transformers

9 IS 6600 Guide for loading of oil immersed transformers

10 IS 1171 Dry type power transformers

11 IS 3151 Earthing transformers

12 IS 1866 Maintenance of mineral insulating oil
 Standards related to Transformers
Sr. No Standard Specification
1 IS: 1448 Density
2 IS: 1448 Kinematic Viscosity @27ºC
3 IS: 6104 Interfacial tension @ 27ºC N/M
4 IS: 1448 Flash Point ºC
5 IS: 1448 Pour Point ºC
6 IS: 1448 Neutralization Value / Total Acidity mg KOH/gm
7 IS: 6792 Corrosive Sulphur (in terms of Classification of
Copper Strip)
8 IS: 6792 Electric Strength: a. New Untreated Oil
b. After treatment
9 IS: 6792 Dielectric Dissipation Factor (tan delta) at 90º C
10 IS:335 Specific Resistance (Resistivity): a. at 90º C min
b. at 27º C min
11 IS:335 Water Content
IEC60296 Specification for supply of unused MIO
IEC60422 ,Maintenance guide for in-service MIO
12 IEC 247 Test for Dissipation factor
13 IEC 567 Transformer oil gas analysis
14 IEC 814 Test for water content in oil
15 IEC 156 Test for dielectric strength in oil
IEC60599 Interpretation of DGA
16 ASTM D974 Test for Acidity or Neutralisation number
17 ASTM D971 Test for Interfacial tension