State the types of semantic relationships

between the following terms

A class refrigerator / G class refrigerator
at sign / @
constitutional / unconstitutional
byte (computer science) / bite (general
language)
HIV / Human Imunnodeficiency Virus
press agency / news agency / media agency
 site (in construction) – site (in computing)
 outdoor sports: football, rugby, baseball,
cycling, tennis, golf, archery, etc.
 brain drain – brain gain
 retail trade – whole-sale trade
 a cookie (biscuit) – cookie (computing)
 the Earth - planet
Language is a living organism.

Language is a dynamic phenomenon which

accurately reflects contemporary society.
Language is like a soil. However rich,
it is subject to erosion, and its
fertility is constantly threatened by
uses that exhaust its vitality. It
needs constant re-invigoration if it
is not to become arid and sterile
(Elisabeth Drew).
TERMINOLOGY AND
NEOLOGY
Great innovations and ideas
of the past 5 years
Hoverboards
Drone
What is a drone?
The terms unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and drone are used interchangeably.
According to the FAA, a UAV is an aircraft without an onboard human pilot,
controlled either autonomously or by remote control. The term unmanned
aircraft system (UAS) refers to the unmanned aircraft and all of its components
including, but not limited to: control stations and software, remote controls (if
necessary), control links, payloads, launch and recovery equipment.
 Alternate Names for Drones:
 Quadcopter: The most popular name for Small UAVs, which has 4 rotors
positioned on a horizontal plane like a helicopter. Other names
include Quadricopter, Quadrocopter
 Multicopter: A generic name for a drone with multiple propellers. This
covers quadcopters, octocopters, etc.
 Hexicopter: A multi-rotor aircraft having six rotors in which the beauty and
advantage of the hexicopter is that it can lose any single engine and still
maintain control to land
 Octocopters: Has eight blades
Great innovations and ideas of the
past 5 years
 All the 3D-printed things
 The selfie stick
 Smartwatches
 Crowd-funding sites
 Google Glass (the hands-free smartphone-like
device)
Before the establishment of widespread cheap print, the
evolution of language through the appearance of
neologisms was much more difficult to track. Some
dictionaries were only revised every forty years,
meaning that vital changes in language, particularly
those ephemeral, were missed.
Today, dictionaries update their corpora at least once a
year, and online dictionaries represent huge linguistic
databases, often allowing users to contribute terms and
definitions to reflect the way language is used.
Word of the year 2016
Post-truth
Words or terms of the year 2015
 Oxford Dictionary: emojis (the plural can be either
emoji or emojis) have been around since the late 1990s,
but 2015 saw their use, and use of the word emoji,
increase hugely.
 Washington Post: Singular "they," the gender-neutral
pronoun, has been named the Word of the Year by
over 200 linguists at the American Dialect Society's
annual meeting in Washington, D.C..
 Suffix –ism: 2733 English words ending in -ism entered
in Merriam-Webster’s Unabridged dictionary. The top
seven isms account for millions of lookups in 2015.
 ad blocker, noun: A piece of software designed to prevent advertisements
from appearing on a web page.
 Brexit, noun: A term for the potential or hypothetical departure of the United
Kingdom from the European Union, from British + exit.
 Dark Web, noun: The part of the World Wide Web that is only accessible by
means of special software, allowing users and website operators to remain
anonymous or untraceable.
 on fleek, adjectival phrase: Extremely good, attractive, or stylish.
 lumbersexual, noun: A young urban man who cultivates an appearance and
style of dress (typified by a beard and check shirt) suggestive of a rugged
outdoor lifestyle.
 refugee, noun: A person who has been forced to leave their country in order to
escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.
 sharing economy, noun: An economic system in which assets or services are
shared between private individuals, either for free or for a fee, typically by
means of the Internet.
 they (singular), pronoun: Used to refer to a person of unspecified sex.
 Term of the year
 bitcoin, noun: a digital currency in which
transactions can be performed without the
need for a central bank.
The term first appeared in late 2008 in a
research paper, and the first bitcoins were
created in 2009. By 2012, the virtual
currency was attracting wider attention and
we began to see its steadily increasing use.
olinguito, noun:
a small furry mammal found
in mountain forests in Colombia
and Ecuador, the smallest member of the raccoon
family. (Taxonomic name Bassaricyon neblina)
[ORIGIN 2013: diminutive form of OLINGO, a South
American mammal resembling the kinkajou.]
The discovery of the olinguito was announced by the
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History in
August 2013.
Other new terms:
 Obamacare
 fiscal cliff (the threat of spending cuts and tax
increases looming over end-of-year budget
negotiations)
 Arab Spring – a series of popular uprisings in
Middle Eastern countries against dictatorial
regimes (2011).
 -pad Combining form used by iPad and other
tablet computers (ViewPad, WindPad) (2010)
 Facebook (2007)
Other new terms:
 to google (2006)
 Vatileaks (scandal involving leaked Vatican
documents, allegedly exposing corruption)
(2012)
 BRIC (Brasil, Russia, China, India) Jim O Neal,
economist at Goldam Sachs
 MIST (Mexico, Indonesia, South Coreea and
Turkey)
 Nanotechnology
This is a science that studies ways to control
individual atoms and molecules. Researchers
consider ways to control disease with
nanotechnology robots called nano-bots.
Nanotechnology has already produced wrinkle-
free and stain-resistant fabrics, food packaging
that keeps meat fresh longer, and self-cleaning
windows. It is possible that in the future
nanotechnology could produce nanobots that
could eat up cancer cells.
Biometric identification
This is the process of using a person's unique
physical characteristics for computer
identification.
Current biometric identification methods include
identification by fingerprint, voice, iris, and face.
Biometric identification is currently being used in
many government agencies, as well as large
businesses. Some of today’s laptop computers have
built-in fingerprint identification pads. Biometric
identification is also being tested in many areas
such as airports.
 Topic Overview
 Terminology and Neology
 Definition of Neology and Neologisms
 Types of neologisms
 Structural and semantic peculiarities of
neologisms
 Pragmatic and sociolinguistic aspects of
neologisms
 Neology
is the science dealing with neologisms or
“new words” (including the technical terms)
appearing in the language.
However, this traditional definition of neology, only
covers linguistic processes for forming new words,
and is today not comprehensive enough to describe
all the activities centred around linguistic
innovations.
Neology is placed on three levels
linguistic,
cultural, and
political.
As Boulanger (1989) states
Neology currently refers to at least five different
activities:
1. the practical process of creating new lexical units
2. the theoretical and applied study of lexical
innovations: the processes of creation, the criteria for
recognition, acceptability or spread of neologisms,
the social and cultural aspects of neology, etc.
3. Institutional activity that is systematically organized
to gather, assign, disseminate or implement
neologisms within a special language policy;
4. the task of identifying entirely new or recently
developed special subject fields, or fields that have gaps
requiring intervention
5. the relationship between the new item and
dictionaries, especially in two regards: the use of
dictionaries as a filter for recognizing neologisms and
the analysis of how neology is treated in dictionaries
Neology as a process is a clear and
unquestionable concept, even though it is
complex and thus difficult to describe;
conversely, a neologism, as the result of a
process, is extremely vague.
 Neologisms
A neologism (from Greek néo-, meaning ‘new’
and logos, meaning ‘speech, utterance’) is a
new term which has entered common use,
but has not yet been fully accepted into
mainstream language.
(The word “neologism” was coined around 1800 and was,
at that time, a neologism itself.)
 2016 word of the year / the Collins
dictionary.
‘Corbynomics’ - ‘the economic policies
advocated by the UK Labour leader Jeremy
Corbyn’, and
‘dadbod’, defined as ‘an untoned and slightly
plump male physique’.
 Neologisms appear due to developments
in social life, culture or science, and are
usually directly attributable to their specific
era.
 Some new words are closely tied to
temporary phenomena, and fade into
insignificance, while others, related to
enduring aspects of society, remain, and
become permanent features of our lexicon.
The characterization of a specific
segment as neological is not easy
unless certain points of reference,
which are to some extent arbitrary in
nature, are taken into account.
There are several possible parameters to
determine if a unit is a neologism or not:
 diachronic: a unit is a neologism if it has arisen
recently;
 lexicographic: a unit is a neologism if it is not
in dictionaries;
 systematic instability: a unit is a neologism if it
exhibits signs of formal instability (e.g.
morphological, graphic, phonetic) or semantic
instability;
 psychological: a unit is a neologism if speakers
perceive it as a new unit;
From these criteria neologists tent to favor the
lexicographic parameter as the most
systematic one to determine whether a
lexical unit is a neologism or not.
Neologisms pass through three
stages:
 Creation (The new term enters common language
and is used only by a limited audience).
 trial (the term is then diffused) and
 establishment (finally it becomes widely
accepted and stabilised)
 a stability which is indicated by its
appearance in glossaries, dictionaries and
large corpora.
There are two types of situation
that require specific intervention.
 first, when two or more designations
converge in a concept and this results in a
negative impact on communication; and,
 secondly, when a special language does not
have the designation required for expressing
a concept.
 In the former case, the various designations
must be reduced so that only one remains
for the benefit of accurate communication.
 In the latter case, a new designation must be
created to express the new concept.
Some unsolved problems
 the problem of the term “neologism”, which
by its very nature is ambiguous.
 how long should newly coined words or
submeanings of existing lexemes should be
considered as “new”?
2. Types of Neologisms
A classification of neologisms cannot be
based on a single criterion, but rather must
be multidimensional. Different types of
neologisms are identified below according
to what they are based on.
From the standpoint of their belonging to
the general language
there is a distinction between two large
groupings of lexical neologisms that behave
differently:
 those present in the general language (true
neologisms) and
 those present in special languages (also
known as neonyms).
True neologisms / Neonyms /
Lexical Neologisms Terminological
Neologisms
belong to general language belong to special languages

spontaneous, appear for no arise because of the need

particular reason for a designation and are
usually more stable.
are not affected by reject synonymy because it
synonymy but usually can distort communicative
coexist with synonyms. efficiency.

tent toward formal phrases

conciseness
They often appeal to old and They often appeal to to
dialectical forms of the compounds based on
language and to borrowings neoclassical languages.

They do not usually spread are designed to be

beyond the language in which international
they have been created

lack of ambiguity, single

reference, belong to a
special field, stable.
(characteristics of
terms)
 From the poit of view of their
function
there are referencial and expressive
neologisms.
 referencial ones develop because they are
required to fill a gap,
 the expressive neologisms develop simply
to introduce new forms of expression into
discourse.
From the point of view of their
formation
In fact, very few of the new words which
appear in the English language are
completely ‘new’ – they account for less
than 1% of all English neologisms.
 The vast majority of new words and
expressions include at least one lexical
component which is already familiar to
us.
 compounding: speed-dating, text messages,
hoverboard, smartwatch
 blending: flexiterian – flexible vegetarian, Brexit
 affixation: regift – to give something as a gift which
you originally received as a gift yourself, or
deshopper – describing a person who buys something,
uses it, but then returns it to the shop for a full refund.
 Perhaps the simplest of all linguistic processes used to
create new words, is that of borrowing, where words
from other languages enter common use.
 From the point of view of their
formation
1. derivations (with prefixes and suffixes),
compounds, phrases, shortenings (using
initialisms, acronyms, clippings)
2. semantic neologisms, including three types of
processes: broadening or narrowing or change of
the meaning of the base form
3. borrowed neologisms, which are true borrowings
and loan translations
Neologisms from Ecology
 countrycide
 rivercide
 seacide
 eco-terrorism
 eco-catastrophy
 3. Structural and semantic
peculiarities of neologisms
New vocabulary units are as a rule
monosemantic and most of them are
marked by peculiar stylistic value – they
primarily belong to the specialized
vocabulary.
Neutral words and phrases are comparatively
few.
Structurally new vocabulary items represent
two types of lexical units:
 words, e.g. blackout, to google
 word-groups, e.g. peace camp, micro-film
reader.
Words in their turn comprise various
structural types:
 simple words: think – a group involved in
researching and solving difficult problems;
 compounds: job-hunting, brain-drain, brain-
gain, think tank;
 acronyms: BRIC (countries);
 terms invented from a combination of roots
found in Greek and Latin: cybernetics (Gr.
‘kybernetes’=steersman + suffix ‘–ics’),
nanotechnology;
 derived words
 microtechnology, telemedicine;
 anti- : anti-novelist, anti-word, anti-emotion
 suffix ‘-ee’ : e.g. the interrogatee, the
enrollee, appointee, grantee, patentee,
escapee etc.
derived words
The word “marathon” has also been
dismembered (‘-thon’ - endurance,
duration, resistibility:
 e.g. talkathon, walkathon, readathon,
speechathon, telethon, etc.
 Examples of blends
bionics (bio+electronics), nanobot;
cooltainer (n) – cool and container;
Eurocrat (n) – Europe and autocrat;
rockoon (n) – rocket and balloon;
aviations (n) – aviation and navigation;
militainment (n), military + entertainment.
 Word-groups comprise a considerable part
of vocabulary extension.
 Structurally, the bulk of the word-groups
belongs to the attributive-nominal type
built on the A+N and N+N formulas,
 e.g. frequency modulation, total war,
Common Marketeer etc.
 Examples of term phrases
 just-in-time politics (n) – a form of politics in which ad hoc
coalitions and relationships are built around issues instead of
parties or ideologies;
 flash campaign (n) – a lobbying effort that uses the Internet
and other technologies to quickly establish an agenda and
built support;
 headline risk (n) – the risk associated with something or
someone that has the potential to generate an excessive
amount of negative publicity;
 opposition research (n) – euphemism for potentially
scandalous information uncovered while researching a
political opponent;
 push poll (n) – a series of calls , masquerading as a public
opinion poll, in which people who support a particular
candidate offer negative information about a rival candidate.
The lexical system may adapt itself to new
functions by combining several word-
building processes.
 ‘fall-out’ (the radioactive dust descending
through the air after an atomic explosion)
 ‘ad-lib’ (to improvise) (Lat. ‘ad libidum’),
 teach-in, lie-in, sleep-in, laugh-in, read-in,
sign-in, etc.
 Terms derived from Latin
Computer is a word of Latin origin. For
'computer' combines 'cum', which means
'together', with 'puto', which comes from the
Latin verb 'putare', or 'to count or reckon'.
The word 'cell' comes 'cella', which is Latin for
'storeroom'.
The word 'digital' comes from the word digitus,
which literally means 'finger' and by extension
'number' in Latin.
 4. Pragmatic aspects of
neologisms
The key to survival for neologisms is
usage.
They exist for just as long as the people
using them find them relevant.
The linguistic conditions that a neologism
must exhibit in order to have a reasonable
chance of being accepted, especially if it is
to replace a borrowing that is already in use,
are the following:
 It has to designate an explicitly delimited,
stable concept that already exists so that the
new term is unambiguous.
 It has to be as brief and concise as possible,
even if phrasal forms are more prevalent in
some fields.
 It has to conform to rules of grammar.
 It has to be as transparent as possible.
 It has to able to be the basis for possible
derived forms.
 It has to conform to the phonological and
graphic systems of the language.
In addition to these linguistic criteria new
terms also have to have certain
sociolinguistic characteristics.
They have to result from necessity, i.e. they
must name a new concept.
 IATE term of the week (15th of April):
female poverty
 the gap between women and men caught in the cycle
of poverty.
 A woman is considered in the risk of poverty when she
earns less than a man for the same amount and type of
work and also is a single parent. The gender pay gap is
considered the major trigger of female poverty and the
risk of poverty among women is higher than in the
case of men by 34 percent.
 Cultural acceptance
 After being coined, neologisms invariably
undergo scrutiny by the public and by linguists
to determine their suitability to the language.
Many are accepted very quickly, others attract
opposition.
 As a rule, neologisms are retained by the
language if they are felt necessary, in
accordance with the principle that a language
usually ousts whatever is superfluous.
Cultural acceptance
Neologisms tend to occur more often in
cultures which are rapidly changing, and
also in situations where there is easy and
fast propagation of information.
Neologisms often become popular by way of
mass media, the Internet, or word of mouth.
Virtually every word in a language was, at
some time, a neologism, though most of
these ceased to be such through time and
acceptance.
Cultural acceptance
The higher the tempo of development of a
given country and society the shorter the
period of time this or that tremor
submeaning of an existing word is
considered to be a neologism. The slower
the tempo of development of a speaking
community the longer is the period of time
a given “new” word or meaning is
assimilated and considered as a neologism.
 an infomercial
 narrowcasting
 headlinese
 a sportscaster
 a Netizen
 Netiquette
 a spammer
 a dotcom
 e-commerce
 e-banking
 e-learning
 e-cash
 e-shop
 e-magazine
Word of the year 2014
VAPE
 Meaning: It originated as an abbreviation of vapour or
vaporise. Its definition was added to OD in August 2014:
the verb means ‘to inhale and exhale the vapour produced
by an electronic cigarette or similar device’, while both the
device and the action can also be known as a vape. The
associated noun vaping is also listed.
Why was vape chosen? As e-cigarettes (or e-cigs) have
become much more common, so vape has grown significantly
in popularity. Its usage has more than doubled in the past
year.
The language of vaping
 new compound nouns: vape pen and vape shop,
and there is also recent evidence for vape lounge,
vape fluid, vape juice, and others.
 Related coinages include e-juice, carto, and
vaporium – as well as the retronym tobacco
cigarette for traditional cigarettes.
 (A retronym is a new term created from an existing
word in order to distinguish the original word from
a later development)
Other new terms in 2014
 contactless adj. relating to or involving technologies
that allow a smart card, mobile phone, etc. to contact
wirelessly to an electronic reader, typically in order to
make a payment.
 indyref, n. an abbreviation of ‘independence
referendum’, in reference to the referendum on Scottish
independence, held in Scotland on 18 September 2014, in
which voters were asked to answer yes or no to the
question ‘Should Scotland be an independent country?’
 CHOLESTEROL
 In the first half of the 20th, cholesterol, a fatty substance
found in the tissues of all animals, gradually emerged as a
person of interest in a scientific murder investigation.
Researchers working on the causes of heart disease in
humans, and especially on the hardening of the arteries of
the heart which leads to heart attacks, named cholesterol
as their prime suspect. In 1977, researches showed that two
types are found in our bodies, one, low-density lipoprotein
(LDL) cholesterol, was indeed found to be a cause of the
clogging of arteries, but another type, high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, actually helps to ‘clean’ the
arterial walls, by transporting molecules of its LDL alter
ego to the liver to be broken down.
 A Sample of
New Dictionary Words for 2014
 Hashtag, selfie, and tweep join over 150 new words and definitions added to
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate® Dictionary in 2014. These new additions reflect the
growing influence technology is having on human endeavor, especially social
networking, once done mostly in person.
 Crowdfunding joins big data and gamification, illustrating how technology is
being used to understand and motivate behavior.
 steampunk ("science fiction dealing with 19th-century societies dominated by
historical or imagined steam-powered technology").
 In the area of more intimate relationships, catfish, a technology-related term, refers
to a person who sets up a false social networking profile for deceptive purposes.
Catfish was popularized by the documentary and television series of the same name
and by last year's strange story of football player Manti Te'o's nonexistent girlfriend.
 "So many of these new words show the impact of online connectivity to our lives and
livelihoods," explains Peter Sokolowski, Editor at Large for Merriam-Webster. "Tweep,
selfie, and hashtag refer to the ways we communicate and share as individuals.
Words like crowdfunding, gamification, and big data show that the Internet has
changed business in profound ways."
Some useful international links and
websites dealing with neologisms:
 Lexicopoeia: A Lexicon of Neologisms
 Merriam-Webster Word Central
 Neologics: Neologism Sites on the Web
 Neolosfera (Universitat Pompeu Fabra)
 NetLingohttp://www.netlingo.com/
 NeoUSAL (Universidad de Salamanca)
 Online Etymology Dictionary
Some useful international links and
websites dealing with neologisms:
 ADS’s Word of the Year
http://www.americandialect.org/woty
 Dictionary of (British) slang
http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/
 Die Wortwarte
http://www.wortwarte.de/
 Glossary of Hardboiled Slang
https://www.miskatonic.org/slang.html
 Incompetech: Neologisms
http://www.incompetech.com/gallimaufry/neologism.html
Should these words be added to
the dictionary?
(Yes! I've heard/read this term a lot./
Definitely not! / Let's wait and see. Maybe people will start using it.)

 beditate verb - to meditate in bed

 Beditating on waking allows the fight-or-flight
response to calm down, thus widening the perceptual
field. It’s a kind of turbo rest, and one that you’re not
going to get by reaching for your phone, drinking coffee
or alcohol, watching television, or even reading.
[The Sunday Times, 08 January 2017]

https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/
 heli-yoga noun [U]
the activity of taking a helicopter to an isolated
outdoor location and doing a yoga session there
 Sin City is the jumping-off point for heli-yoga, the zen
practise [sic] of taking a helicopter flight to an Insta-
worthy location, to unfurl your yoga mat and knock out
a few sun salutations.
[Telegraph, 26 November 2016]

 https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/
 immersive hybrid reality noun [U]
a set of images and sounds, produced by a computer,
that seem to represent a workplace environment
 Experts in construction and computer technology at
Heriot-Watt University have developed a ground-
breaking immersive hybrid reality (iHR) system which
aims to take the danger out of extreme working
conditions.
[www.designingbuildings.co.uk 24 October 2016]
https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/
 clean sleeping noun [U]
the practice of getting enough good quality sleep in
order to improve or maintain one’s health
 The lifestyle I lead is based not just on clean eating, but
also on clean sleeping: at least seven or eight hours of
good quality sleep — and ideally even ten.
[www.dailymail.co.uk 18.12.2016]

 https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/
 conversational commerce noun [U]
direct conversations between people and companies or
services using technology such as apps
 Echo is part of the new wave of conversational
commerce technologies, where the use of messaging,
digital assistants, chat apps, or question-and-answer
dialogue makes it possible for people to simply ask for
what they need.
[www.venturebeat.com 28 July 2016]
 https://dictionaryblog.cambridge.org/
 Bremoaner noun [C]
someone who complains about Britain’s exit from the
European Union
 Anybody asking questions about our future
relationship with our biggest trading partner is
dismissed as a Bremoaner. I have been called worse in
my time.
[www.dailymail.co.uk 30.10.2016]
Thank you for your attention!!!