AP10006 Physics II

Light & Optics, Electricity & Magnetism

Textbook: “Physics for Scientists and Engineers with

Modern Physics” 8th edition by J. W. Jewett & Jr. R.
A. Serway
Contents for Electricity
1. Electric Fields
2. Gauss’s Law
3. Electric Potential
4. Capacitance & Dielectrics
5. Current & Resistance
6. Direct-Current circuits

2 Section Introduction
Chapter 23 (a)
Electric Fields
(point charges)
Topics being covered in Chapter 23 – Electric fields

• Properties of electric charges

• Charging objects by induction
• Coulomb’s law
• The electric field
• Electric field of a continuous charge distribution
• Electric field lines
• Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field

4 Introduction
Electric Charges
There are two kinds of electric charges
 called positive charges and negative charges
e.g.,
 Electrons carry negative charges
 Protons carry positive charges.
Charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs
attract one another.

Electromagnetic Forces
The concept of force links the study of electromagnetism to previous study.
The electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental
forces of nature.

5 Introduction
Examples of Field Forces
 Field forces act through empty space
Electromagnetic Forces

Electric force Magnetic force

Gravitational force

Between two masses Between two Between two

electric charges magnets

There exists interaction among

electric charges and magnets too.

6
 Electric Charges and forces

Charge of different signs Charge of same sign

The rubber rod is negatively charged The rubber rod is negatively charged.
and the glass rod positively charged. The second rubber rod is also negatively
The two rods will attract. charged. The two rods will repel.
7 Section 23.1
Electric Charges

Similar to mass, m, in classical mechanics, we use a symbol, q, for the

measure of charge that a piece of matter carries.

 Mass m always has a positive value but charge q can be negative

 Electric charge exists as discrete packets in most situations. (Charges
are quantized.)
 It was discovered that charge of an object must be q = Ne, where
 N is an integer
 e = 1.6 x 10-19 C is the fundamental unit of charge

 One electron carries a charge of q = e

 One proton carries a charge of q = +e
More About Electric Charges

Electric charge is always conserved in an isolated system.

◦ We cannot create charges but

transfer charges from one object to
another.

Example: A glass rod is rubbed with silk

 Electrons (i.e., negative charges)
are transferred from the glass to
the silk.
 An equal positive charge is left on
the rod.
Conductors
Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free electrons.
 Free electrons are not bound to the atoms and can move relatively freely through
the material. Examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum and silver.
 When a good conductor is charged in a small region, the charge readily
distributes itself over the entire surface of the material.

Insulators
Electrical insulators are materials in which all of the electrons are bound to atoms.
 These electrons can not move relatively freely through the material.
 Examples of good insulators include glass, rubber and wood.
 When a good insulator is charged in a small region, the charge is unable to move
to other regions of the material.

10 Section 23.2
Charging a Conductor by Induction
Charge Rearrangement in Insulators
 A process similar to induction can take
place in insulators.
 The charges within the molecules of the
material are rearranged.
 The proximity of the positive charges on
the surface of the object and the
negative charges on the surface of the
insulator results in an attractive force
between the object and the insulator.
Semiconductors (Optional)

The electrical properties of semiconductors are somewhere between those of

insulators and conductors.
Examples of semiconductor materials include silicon and germanium.
 Semiconductors made from these materials are commonly used in making
electronic chips.
The electrical properties of semiconductors can be changed by the addition of
controlled amounts of certain atoms to the material.

13 Section 23.2
Coulomb’s Law

Charles Coulomb measured the

magnitudes of electric forces between
two small charged spheres.
The force is inversely proportional to
the square of the separation r between
the charges and directed along the line
joining them.
The force is proportional to the product
of the charges, q1 and q2, on the two
particles.
The electrical force between two
stationary point charges is given by
Coulomb’s Law.
Coulomb’s torsion balance,
used to establish the
14 Section 23.3 inverse square law.
 Coulomb’s Law, cont.
Mathematically, the magnitude of the force between two stationary charges
is
|𝑞1 | |𝑞2 |
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑟2
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb C.
 ke = 8.9876 x 109 N.m2/C2 = 1/(4peo) is called the Coulomb constant.
 eo = 8.8542 x 10-12 C2 / N.m2 is the permittivity of free space.

Remember the charges need to be in coulombs. e is the smallest unit of charge

except quarks. Since e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, so 1 C needs 6.24 x 1018 electrons or protons.
Typical charges can be in the µC range.
Remember that force is a vector quantity.

15 Section 23.3
Particle Summary

The electron and proton are identical in the magnitude of their charge, but very
different in mass.
The proton and the neutron are similar in mass, but very different in charge.

16 Section 23.3
Vector Nature of Electric Forces
In vector form, the force between charges is
 q1q 2
F12  ke 2 rˆ12
r
r̂12 is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2.
(a) The like charges produce a repulsive force
between them.
(b) The unlike charges produce an attractive
force between them.
Electrical forces obey Newton’s Third Law.
The force on q1 is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force on q2
 
F 21  F12
With like signs for the charges, the product
q1q2 is positive and the force is repulsive.

17 Section 23.3
Multiple Charges
The resultant force on any one charge equals the vector sum of the forces
exerted by the other individual charges that are present.
 Remember to add the forces as vectors.
For example, if four charges are present, the resultant force on one of these
equals the vector sum of the forces exerted on it by each of the other charges.
   
F1 F 21F31F 41

18 Section 23.3
Example 23.4 Finding the Charge on the Spheres

The spheres are in equilibrium.

Since they are separated, they exert a repulsive
force on each other.
 Charges are like charges
Model each sphere as a particle in equilibrium.
Proceed as usual with equilibrium problems,
noting one force is an electrical force.
Electrical Force with Other Forces, Example
The force diagram includes the components of the tension,
the electric force, and the gravity force.
Solve for |q|
Note that you cannot determine the sign of q, only that they
both have the same sign.

20 Section 23.3
Electric Field – Definition
An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around a charged object.
 This charged object is the source charge.
When another charged object, the test charge, enters this electric field, an
electric force acts on it.
The electric field is defined as the electric force on the test charge per unit charge.

The electric field vector, E , at a point in space is defined as the electric force
acting on a positive test charge, qo, placed at that point divided by the test charge:

𝐅Ԧ
𝐄≡
𝑞𝑜

The SI unit of 𝐄 is N/C (or more often V/m)

21 Section 23.4
Electric Field, Notes

E is the field produced by some charge or charge distribution, separate
from the test charge.
The existence of an electric field is a property of the source charge.
 The presence of the test charge is not necessary for the field to exist.
The test charge serves as a detector of the field.


The direction of E is that of the force on a
positive test charge.
We can also say that an electric field exists at a
point if a test charge at that point experiences an
electric force.

22 Section 23.4
Relationship Between F and E
 
F  qE

If q is positive, the force and the field are in the same direction.
If q is negative, the force and the field are in opposite directions.

Electric Field, Vector Form

Remember Coulomb’s law, between the source and test charges, can be
expressed as 𝑞𝑞 𝑜
𝐅Ԧ𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 𝐫ො
𝑟2
Then, the electric field will be
𝐅Ԧ𝑒 𝑞
𝐄= = 𝑘𝑒 2 𝐫ො
𝑞𝑜 𝑟

23 Section 23.4
More About Electric Field Direction
a) q is positive, the force is directed away from q.
b) The direction of the field is also away from the positive source charge.
c) q is negative, the force is directed toward q.
d) The field is also toward the negative source charge.

24 Section 23.4
Electric Fields from Multiple Charges

• At any point P, the total electric field

due to a group of source charges
equals the vector sum of the electric
fields of all the charges.

𝐄 = ෍ 𝐄𝑖
𝑖
𝑞𝑖
= 𝑘𝑒 ෍ 2 𝐫ො𝑖
𝑟𝑖
𝑖

The figure represent the vector sum of the

electric field produced by two points charges.
𝑘𝑒 𝑞1 𝑘𝑒 𝑞2
𝐄 = 𝐄1 + 𝐄2 = 2 𝐫ො1 + 2 𝐫ො2
𝑟1 𝑟2
Electric Field – Continuous Charge Distribution, cont
A continuous object can have distributed charges with varying
charge densities at different locations.
Procedures in finding the total electric field at point P:
 Divide the charge distribution into small elements,
each of which contains Δq.
 Calculate the electric field due to one of these
elements at point P.
 Evaluate the total field by summing the
contributions of all the charge elements.
Equations:
For the individual charge elements
 q
E  k e 2 rˆ
r
Because the charge distribution is continuous
 q i dq
E  ke lim
qi 0
 ri
2
ri  ke  2 rˆ
ˆ
r
i This becomes an integration.
26 More details are provided at the end of this chapter.
Problem-Solving Strategy
Conceptualize
 Establish a mental representation of the problem.
 Imagine the electric field produced by the charges or charge distribution.
Categorize
 Individual charge? Group of individual charges? Continuous distribution of charges?
Analyze
 Analyzing a group of individual charges:
 Use the superposition principle, find the fields due to the individual charges at the
point of interest and then add them as vectors to find the resultant field.
 Analyzing a continuous charge distribution:
 The vector sums for evaluating the total electric field at some point must be
replaced with vector integrals.
 Divide the charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces, calculate the vector sum by
integrating over the entire charge distribution.
 Symmetry: Taking advantage of any symmetry to simplify calculations.

27 Section 23.5
Electric Field – Field Pattern
The electric field is a vector field representing the electric force per unit charge.
It can also be represented as a distributed vectors at various locations.
In the following example, the vectors represent the total electric field strengths
and directions at the rectangular sampling points.

𝐄(𝑥, 𝑦)
+

-
+
Electric Field Lines
In stead of drawing a lot of vectors in space, we can also use field lines to
represent the electric field.
The line has a direction that is the same as that of the electric field vector.
i.e., the electric field vector is tangent to the electric field line at each point.
The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the lines is
proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in that region.

The density of lines through surface A is greater than

through surface B.
The magnitude of the electric field is greater on
surface A than B.
The lines at different locations point in different
directions.
 This indicates the field is nonuniform.

29 Section 23.6
Electric Field Lines, Positive Point Charge
The field lines radiate outward in all directions.
 In three dimensions, the distribution is spherical.
The lines are directed away from the source charge.
 A positive test charge would be repelled away
from the positive source charge.

The field lines radiate inward in all directions.

The lines are directed toward the source charge.
 A positive test charge would be attracted
toward the negative source charge.
30 Section 23.6
Electric Field Lines – Rules for Drawing

The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
 In the case of an excess of one type of charge, some lines will begin or
end infinitely far away.
The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative
charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
No two field lines can cross.
Remember field lines are not material objects, they are a pictorial
representation used to qualitatively describe the electric field.
These rules are related to the Gauss’ law (to be mentioned in the next chapter)

31 Section 23.6
 Electric Field Lines – Dipole, Like Dipoles, Unequal Charges
Equal and opposite charges.
The number of field lines
leaving the positive charge
equals the number of lines
terminating on the negative
charge.
32
Equal and positive charges. The
same number of lines leave each
charge since they are equal in
magnitude. At a great distance, the
field is approximately equal to that of
a single charge of 2q. Since there
are no negative charges available,
the field lines end infinitely far away.
The positive charge is twice the
magnitude of the negative
charge. Two lines leave the
positive charge and one of
them terminates on the
negative charge. At a great
distance, the field would be
approximately the same as that
due to a single charge of +q.
Motion of Charged Particles
When a charged particle is placed in an electric field, it experiences an electrical
force.
If this is the only force on the particle, it must be the net force.
The net force will cause the particle to accelerate according to Newton’s second law.

If the field is uniform, then the acceleration is constant.

The particle under constant acceleration model can be applied to the motion of
the particle.
 The electric force causes a particle to move according to the models of
forces and motion.
If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the field.
If the particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite
the electric field.

33 Section 23.7
Electron in a Uniform Field (Ex. 23.10)

34 Section 23.7
Cont. Electron in a Uniform Field (Ex. 23.10)

The electron is projected horizontally into a uniform

electric field.
The electron undergoes a downward acceleration.
 It is negative, so the acceleration is opposite
the direction of the field.
Its motion is parabolic while between the plates.

35 Section 23.7
Chapter 23 (b)
Electric Fields
(continuous charge distribution)
Electric Field – Continuous Charge Distribution, cont
A continuous object can have distributed charges with varying
charge densities at different locations.
Procedures in finding the total electric field at point P:
 Divide the charge distribution into small elements,
each of which contains Δq.
 Calculate the electric field due to one of these
elements at point P.
 Evaluate the total field by summing the
contributions of all the charge elements.
Equations:
For the individual charge elements
 q
E  k e 2 rˆ
r
Because the charge distribution is continuous
 q i dq
E  ke lim
qi 0
 ri
2
ri  ke  2 rˆ
ˆ
r
i This becomes an integration.
37 More details are provided at the end of this chapter.
Charge Densities
𝜌 is the Volume charge density.
When a charge Q is distributed evenly throughout a volume V
 𝜌 ≡ Q / V (in units of C/m3)
𝜎 is the Surface charge density.
When a charge Q is distributed evenly over a surface area A
 𝜎 ≡ Q / A (in units of C/m2)
𝜆 is the Linear charge density.
When a charge Q is distributed evenly along a line of length ℓ
 𝜆 ≡ Q / ℓ (in units of C/m)

Amount of Charge in an Infinitesimally Small Volume/Area/Length

When charges are NOT uniformly distributed over a volume, surface, or line, the
amount of charge, 𝑑𝑞, in a small element is given by
 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 for a small volume of 𝑑𝑉 (𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 in Cartesian coordinates)
 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴 for a small area of 𝑑𝐴
(𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 for surface in xy-plane)
 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆dℓ for a small area of dℓ
38 Section 23.5(𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥 for line along x-direction)
Problem-Solving Strategy
Conceptualize
 Establish a mental representation of the problem.
 Imagine the electric field produced by the charges or charge distribution.
Categorize
 Individual charge? Group of individual charges? Continuous distribution of charges?
Analyze
 Analyzing a group of individual charges:
 Use the superposition principle, find the fields due to the individual charges at the
point of interest and then add them as vectors to find the resultant field.
 Analyzing a continuous charge distribution:
 The vector sums for evaluating the total electric field at some point must be
replaced with vector integrals.
 Divide the charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces, calculate the vector sum by
integrating over the entire charge distribution.
 Symmetry: Taking advantage of any symmetry to simplify calculations.

39 Section 23.5
 A few terminologies in Definite Integral and a few examples of
indefinite integral

f ( x )dx  F ( x )  F (b)  F (a )
b

b
a
a

f ( x ) is called integrand;
F(x) is called integral function;
f ( x ) is the derivative of F(x);
[a, b] is the integral range.

 dx 
x n 1 n 1
x  sin xdx   cos x
n 1
1  cos xdx  sin x
 x dx  ln (x)

40 Section 23.5
Example – Charged Rod
The rod of length 𝑙 has a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q. Calculate the
electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of rod and a distance a
from one end.

Conceptualize: The field dE at point P due to each segment of charge on the rod is in
the negative x direction because every segment carries a positive charge.
Categorize: The continuous rod results in the field produced by a continuous charge
distribution; each segment produces a field in the same direction, -x.
Analyze: Choose dq as a segment of the rod. The segment has a length of dx.By
symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the central axis.
dq  dx
dq dx
dE  ke 2  ke 2 1 n 1
 dx 
n
x x x x
n 1
l a dx l  a dx
E   ke  2  ke  
a x a x2
 1 Q 1 1  keQ
 ke    la a  ke   
 x l  a l  a  a(l  a)
In-class exercise – Charged Disk

The disk has a radius R and a uniform charge density σ. Calculate the
electric field at position P on the central axis.
Choose dq as a ring of radius r. The ring has a surface area 2πr dr.
By symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the central axis.

42 Section 23.5
In-class exercise – Charged Disk

The disk has a radius R and a uniform charge density σ. Calculate the
electric field at position P on the central axis.
Choose dq as a ring of radius r. The ring has a surface area 2πr dr.
By symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the central axis.
dq  dA   (2prdr )  2prdr
dq
dE x  ke 2
cos 
y
1 n 1
cos   x / y  x /( x 2  r 2 )1/ 2  
n
x dx x
y n 1
dq 2prdr
dE x  ke 2 cos   ke x 2 2 3 / 2
y (x  r )
R 2rdr R
E x  ke xp   k xp 0 ( x 2
 r 2 3 / 2
) d ( r 2
)
0 ( x 2  r 2 )3 / 2
e

( x 2  r 2 ) 1/ 2  x 
 ke xp R
 2pke 1  2 2 1/ 2 
1/ 2  (x  R ) 
0
43 Section 23.5
Chapter 24
Gauss’s Law
Topics being covered in Chapter 24 – Gauss’s Law

• Electric flux
• Gauss’s Law
• Application of Gauss’s Law to various charge distributions
• Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium

45 Introduction
Electric Flux
Electric flux is the product of the magnitude of the
electric field and the surface area, A, perpendicular
to the field: ΦE = EA, units: N · m2 / C
The electric flux is proportional to the number of
electric field lines penetrating some surface. The
field lines may make some angle θ with the normal
direction of the surface, then
 
 E  E  A  EA cos 
The flux is a maximum when the surface is
perpendicular to the field: θ = 0º.
The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the
field: θ = 90º.
If the field varies over the surface, Φ = EA cos θ is
valid for only a small element of the area.

46 Section 24.1
Electric Flux, General

In a more general case, look at a small area

element.
 
 E  Ei Ai cos i  Ei  A i
In general, this becomes
 E  lim  Ei Ai cos  i
Ai 0
 
  E  dA
surface

 The surface integral means the integral

must be evaluated over the surface in
question.
In general, the value of the flux will depend
both on the field pattern and on the surface.

47 Section 24.1
Electric Flux, Closed Surface
Assume a closed surface

The vectors A i point in different directions.
 At each point, they are perpendicular to
the surface.
 By convention, they point outward.

At (1), the field lines are crossing the surface

from the inside to the outside; θ < 90o,
Φ is positive.
At (2), the field lines graze surface; θ = 90o,
Φ = 0.
At (3), the field lines are crossing the surface
from the outside to the inside;180o > θ > 90o,
Φ is negative.

48 Section 24.1
Flux Through Closed Surface, final
The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the surface.
 This net number of lines is the number of lines leaving the surface minus the number
entering the surface.
If En is the component of the field perpendicular to the surface, then
 
 E   E  dA   En dA
 The integral is over a closed surface.
closed surface

Flux Through a Cube, Example

In this example, the electric field 𝐄 = 𝐸 ෡𝐢 is uniform everywhere.
The cube has a size of L.
The field lines pass through two surfaces perpendicularly
and are parallel to the other four surfaces.
For face (1), ΦE =  EL2; For face (2), ΦE = EL2
For the other sides, ΦE = 0; Therefore, ΦE,total = 0
49 Section 24.1
Gauss’s Law, Introduction

Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship between the net electric
flux through a closed surface and the charge enclosed by the surface.
 The closed surface is often called a Gaussian surface.
Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of electric fields.
Gauss’s Law can be used as an alternative procedure for calculating electric
fields, particularly for the electric field of highly symmetric charge distributions.
Gauss’s Law is based on the inverse-square behavior of the electric force
between point charges.
Gauss’s Law is important in understanding and verifying the properties of
conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.

50 Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – Single charge example
A positive point charge, q, is located at the
center of a sphere of radius r.
The magnitude of the electric field
everywhere on the surface of the sphere is
E = keq / r2
The field lines are directed radially outward
and are perpendicular to the surface at every
point.  
 E   E  dA E  dA
This will be the net flux through the Gaussian
surface, the sphere of radius r.
We know E = keq/r2 and Asphere = 4πr2, then
q
 E  E (4pr 2 )  4pke q 
e0
51 Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – General
Gauss’s Law:
Any closed surface surrounds charge q,
the electric flux is

  q
 E   E  dA 
e0
Inferences:
─ The electric flux is independent of
the shape of surface
─ If no charge inside, E = 0

52 Section 24.2
Gauss’s Law – General, notes
The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge, q, is given by q/ɛ0 and
is independent of the shape of that surface.
The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge is zero.
Since the electric field due to many charges is the vector sum of the electric fields produced
by the individual charges, the flux through any closed surface can be expressed as
    
 E   E  dA   (E1  E 2    )  dA

Gaussian Surface, Example

• Closed surfaces of various shapes can surround
the charge. Only S1 is spherical - verifies the net
flux through any closed surface surrounding a
point charge q is given by q/ɛ0 and is independent
of the shape of the surface.
• The charge is outside the closed surface with an
arbitrary shape. Any field line entering the surface
leaves at another point. - verifies the electric flux
through a closed surface that surrounds no charge
is zero.
53 Section 24.2
 Electric flux through a Gaussian surface –
Example of multiple point charges

Flux through surface 𝑆:

𝑞1
𝛷𝐸 = ර 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀0
𝑆
Flux through surface 𝑆′:
𝑞2 + 𝑞3
𝛷𝐸 = ර 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀0 <0
𝑆′
Flux through surface 𝑆′′:

𝛷𝐸 = ර 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 0 <0

𝑆′′
Note: 𝑆, 𝑆′, and 𝑆′′ are all closed surfaces
Gauss’s Law – Mathematics
The mathematical form of Gauss’s law states 𝑞 in
ΦE = ර 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀𝑜
 q is the net charge inside the surface.
 in
E represents the electric field at any point on the surface.

 E is the total electric field and may have contributions from charges both
inside and outside of the surface.

Although Gauss’s law can, in theory, be solved to find E for any charge
configuration, in practice it is limited to symmetric situations.

Applying Gauss’s Law

To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a Gaussian surface over which the surface
integral can be simplified and the electric field determined.
Take advantage of symmetry.
Remember, the Gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it does not have to coincide
with a real surface.
55 Section 24.2
Conditions for a Gaussian Surface
Gauss’s law can be useful when we choose a Gaussian surface such that part of
the surface satisfies one of these conditions:
 1) The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be constant
over the surface.

 2) 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are parallel.

 3) 𝐄 and 𝑑𝐀 are perpendicular (i.e., 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =0).

 4) The field is zero.
If the charge distribution does not have sufficient symmetry such that a Gaussian
surface that satisfies these conditions cannot be found, Gauss’s Law is not useful
for determining the electric field for that charge distribution.

56 Section 24.3
Exp. 1: Field Due to a Spherically Symmetric Uniform Charge Distribution
Select a sphere as the Gaussian An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform
surface. volume charge density ρ and carries a total positive
For r > a: Choose surface in Fig (a) charge Q. Calculate the magnitude of electric field
at a point inside and outside the sphere.
𝑞 𝑖𝑛
𝛷𝐸 = ර𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑄
ර𝐸𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑄
𝐸 ර𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑄
𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝜀𝑜
𝑄 𝑄
𝐸 = = 𝑘𝑒 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑟 (a) (b)

57 Section 24.3
Exp. 1: Field Due to a Spherically Symmetric Uniform Charge Distribution
Select a sphere as the Gaussian An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform
surface. volume charge density ρ and carries a total positive
For r < a: Choose surface in Fig (b) charge Q. Calculate the magnitude of electric field
at a point inside and outside the sphere.
(4/3)p𝑟 3 𝑟3
𝑞in = 𝑄 =𝑄 3
(4/3)p𝑎3 𝑎

𝑞in
𝛷𝐸 = ර𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞in
𝐸 ර 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞in 𝑄
𝐸 = 2
= 𝑘𝑒 3 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑎
(a) (b)

58 Section 24.3
Spherically Symmetric Distribution, summary

Inside the sphere, E varies linearly with r

 E → 0 as r → 0
The field outside the sphere is equivalent
to that of a point charge located at the
center of the sphere.

59 Section 24.3
Exp. 2: Field at a Distance from a Line of Charge
Select a cylindrical charge distribution .
 The cylinder has a radius of r and a length of ℓ.

E is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the
surface at every point on the curved part of the surface.
Use Gauss’s Law to find the field.
  q
 E   E  dA E  dA  in
e0
l
E (2prl ) 
e0
l 
E  2k e
2prle 0 r
The end view confirms the field is perpendicular to the
curved surface.
The field through the ends of the cylinder is 0 since the
field is parallel to these surfaces.
60 Section 24.3
Exp. 3: Field Due to a Plane of Charge

E must be perpendicular to the plane and must
have the same magnitude at all points
equidistant from the plane.
Choose a small cylinder whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane for the Gaussian
surface.

E is parallel to the curved surface and there is
no contribution to the surface area from this
curved part of the cylinder.
The flux through each end of the cylinder is EA
and so the total flux is 2EA.
The total charge in the surface is σA.
A 
Applying Gauss’s law:  E  2 EA  and E 
e0 2e 0
Note, this does not depend on r.
Therefore, the field is uniform everywhere.
61
Exp. 4: Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic Equilibrium
When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor is said
to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
(P1) The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
 Whether the conductor is solid or hollow
(P2) If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge resides on its
surface.
(P3) The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular
to the surface and has a magnitude of  / ɛ0.
  is the surface charge density at that point.

(P4) On an irregularly shaped conductor, the

surface charge density is greatest at
locations where the radius of curvature is
the smallest.

62 Section 24.4
Property 1: Fieldinside = 0

Consider a conducting slab in an external field.

If the field inside the conductor were not zero,
free electrons in the conductor would experience
an electrical force.
These electrons would accelerate and would not
be in equilibrium. Therefore, there cannot be a
field inside the conductor.
Before the external field is applied, free electrons
are distributed throughout the conductor.
When the external field is applied, the electrons
redistribute until the magnitude of the internal field equals the magnitude of the
external field, resulting in a net field of zero inside the conductor.

This redistribution takes about 10-16 s and can be considered instantaneous.

If the conductor is hollow, the electric field inside the conductor is also zero.

63 Section 24.4
Property 2: Charge Resides on the Surface

Choose a Gaussian surface inside but close to the

actual surface.
The electric field inside is zero (property 1).
There is no net flux through the Gaussian surface.
Because the Gaussian surface can be as close to
the actual surface as desired, there can be no
charge inside the surface.
Since no net charge can be inside the surface, any
net charge must reside on the surface.
Gauss’s law does NOT indicate the distribution of
these charges, only that it must be on the surface
of the conductor.

64 Section 24.4
Property 3: Field’s Magnitude and Direction

Choose a cylinder as the Gaussian surface.

The field must be perpendicular to the surface.

 If there were a parallel component to E ,
charges would experience a force and
accelerate along the surface and it would not
be in equilibrium.
The net flux through the Gaussian surface is
through only the flat face outside the conductor.
 The field here is perpendicular to the surface.
Applying Gauss’s law:
A 
 E  EA  and E 
e0 e0

65 Section 24.4
Exp. 5: Sphere and Shell Example
Conceptualize
 Similar to the insulating sphere example
 Now a charged insulating sphere is surrounded
by a conducting shell
 Note different charges on the sphere and shell
Categorize
 System has spherical symmetry
 Gauss’s Law can be applied

Analyze
 Construct a Gaussian sphere between the surface of the solid sphere and
the inner surface of the shell: Region 2, a < r < b; Charge inside is +Q
 The electric field lines must be directed radially outward and be constant in
magnitude on the Gaussian surface.

66 Section 24.4
Exp. 5: Sphere and Shell Example, summary

 The electric field for each area can be calculated.

Q
E1  ke 3
r (for r  a)
a
Q
E2  k e 2 (for a  r  b)
r
E3  0 (for b  r  c)
Q
E4   k e (for r  c)
r2
Finalize
 Check the charge distribution: -Q on the inner surface
and the other -Q on the outer surface.
 Think about other possible combinations.
 What if the sphere were conducting instead of insulating?

67 Section 24.4