Laminated Composite Materials

Mechanical Engineering

Instructor: Autar Kaw

 What are you going to learn?
• What are composite materials?
• How are they manufactured?
• What advantages and drawbacks do composites
have over metals?
• Develop mathematical models to understand the
mechanical response of composites to mechanical
and hygrothermal loads?
• Use the above mathematical models to optimally
design structures made of composites.
 What is a composite?
• A composite is a structural
material which consists of
combining two or more
constituents
• Examples:
– Flesh in your leg reinforced
with bones
– Concrete reinforced with
steel
– Epoxy reinforced with
graphite fibers.
 Bricks and Straw
• “You are no longer to
supply the people with
straw for making
bricks; let them go and
gather their own
straw” - Exodus 5.7.
Shift in Paradigm About Materials
“More important than any one
new application is the new
‘materials’ concept itself ”
Peter F. Drucker
The Age of Discontinuity,
1969
 What is this paradigm shift in
materials?

• From substance to structures

• From artisan to science
• From workshop to mathematical modeling
• From what nature provides to what man can
accomplish
 Are Composites Important?

• Considered as one of the ten outstanding

achievements of 1964-1989
From constituents to application
 Chapter 1
Introduction to
Composite
Materials
 Chapter 1: Objectives

• What is a composite?
• What are the advantages and drawbacks of
composites over monolithic materials?
• What factors influence mechanical properties of a
composite
 Chapter Objectives (continued)

• How do we classify composites?

• What are the common types of fibers and matrices?
• How are composite materials manufactured?
• What are the mechanical properties of composite
materials?
 Chapter Objectives (continued)

• Give applications of composite materials.

• How are composites recycled?
• What terminology is used for studying mechanics of
composites?
What is an advanced composite?

• Advanced composites are composite

materials which were traditionally used in
aerospace industries

Examples include graphite/epoxy,

Kevlar/epoxy and Boron/aluminum
Examples of Natural Composites

• Wood
– Cellulose Fibers
– Lignin Matrix
• Bones
– Collagen Fibers
– Mineral Matrix
 Fibrous Composites

• Generally there are two phases

– Fiber as a reinforcement
– Matrix as a binder
 Historical Perspective

• 4000 B.C. Fibrous composites were used in

Egypt in making laminated writing
materials
• 1300 BC: Reference to Book of Exodus
• 1700 AD: French Scientist, Reumer talked
about potential of glass fibers
 Historical Perspectives (continued)

• 1939: Glass fiber manufactured

commercially for high temperature
electrical applications
• 1950s: Boron and carbon fibers were
produced to make ropes.
• 1960s: Matrix added to make polymeric
matrix composites
 Historical Perspectives (continued)

• 1970s: Cold war forces development of metal

matrix composites for military aircrafts and
missile guidance systems
• 1990s: High temperature ceramic matrix
composites are being aggressively researched
for use in next generation aircraft engines and
power plant turbines
Shipments of Composites
Total Shipments in 1995: 3.176 x 109 lb [1.441 x 109 kgs]
Appliance Other
& Business 4%
Equipment 5%
Consumer
Products
6%

Electrical
Transportation
& Electronics
31%
10%
Corrosion-
Resistant
Equipment
12%
Construction
Marine 20%
12%
World Market of Composites
 Advantages of Composites

• Specific Strength and Stiffness

• Tailored Design
• Fatigue Life
• Dimensional Stability
• Corrosion Resistance
• Cost-Effective Fabrication
 Drawbacks of Composites

• High cost of fabrication of composites

• Complex mechanical characterization
• Complicated repair of composite structures
• High combination of all required properties may
not be available
Composites vs. Metals
Composites vs. Metals

• Comparison based on
six primary material
selection parameters
 Why composites over metals?

• High Strength and High Stiffness

• Tailored Design
• Fatigue Life
• Dimensional Stability
• Corrosion Resistance
 Why Composites over Metals?
• How is the mechanical advantage of
composite measured?

E
Specific modulus = ,

 ult
Specific strength = .

where
E  Young' s Modulus
  Density
ult
Ultimate Strength
Specific Strength vs. Year
 Table 1.1. Specific modulus and strength of typical fibers,
composites and bulk metals

Material Specific Young’s Ultimate Specific Specific

Gravity Modulus Strength Modulus Strength
Units GPa MPa GPa-m3/kg MPa-m3/kg
Graphite 1.8 230.00 2067 0.1278 1.148
Unidirectional Graphite/Epoxy 1.6 181.00 1500 0.1131 0.9377
Cross-Ply Graphite/Epoxy 1.8 95.98 373.0 0.06000 0.2331
Quasi-isotropic Graphite/Epoxy 1.8 69.64 276.48 0.04353 0.1728
Steel 7.8 206.8 648.1 0.02652 0.08309
Aluminum 2.6 68.95 275.8 0.02652 0.1061
 Specific Strength
vs
Specific Modulus
5000

4500
Graphite Fiber
4000
Specific Strength [Ksi-in /lb]

Unidirectional
3

3500
Graphite/Epoxy
3000

2500

2000

1500 Cross-Ply
Aluminum Graphite/Epoxy
1000
Quasi-isotropic
500
Steel Graphite/Epoxy
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Specific Modulus [Msi-in 3 /lb]

 Other Mechanical Parameters

• Are specific modulus and specific

strength the only mechanical
parameters used for measuring the
relative advantage of composites
over metals?
P  P  
1/ 2 1/ 2

M = 2L   
2 cr
 2L  
2 cr

• NO!!  E   E
 Tailored Design

• Engineered to meet specific demands as

choices of making the material are many
more as compared to metals.
• Examples of choices
– fiber volume fraction
– layer orientation
– type of layer
– layer stacking sequence
 Fatigue Life

• Fatigue life is higher than metals such as

aluminum.
• Important consideration in applications such
as
– aircrafts
– bridges
– structures exposed to wind
 Dimensional Stability

• Temperature changes can result

– in overheating of components (example
engines)
– thermal fatigue due to cyclic temperature
changes (space structures)
– render structures inoperable (space antennas)
 Corrosion Resistance

• Polymers and ceramics matrix are corrosion

resistant
• Examples include
– underground storage tanks
– doors
– window frames
– structural members of offshore drilling
platforms
What is most limiting factor in the use
of composites in structures?
Lack of engineers with the
knowledge and experience to
design with these materials!!!!
 Cost Considerations

• Composites may be more expensive per pound

than conventional materials. Then why do we
use composite materials?
 Factors in Cost Estimate
• For Composite Materials
– Fewer pounds are required
– Fabrication cost may be lower
– Transportation costs are generally lower
– Less maintenance than conventional
materials is required
 Fiber Factors

• What fiber factors contribute to the

mechanical performance of a
composite?
• Length
• Orientation
• Shape
• Material
 Fiber Factor - Length

• Long Fibers
– Easy to orient
– Easy to process
– Higher impact resistance
– Dimensional stability
• Short Fibers
– Low Cost
– Fast cycle time
 Fiber Factor - Orientation

• One direction orientation

– High stiffness and strength in that direction
– Low stiffness and strength in other directions

• Multi-direction orientation
– Less stiffness but more direction independent
 Fiber Factor - Shape

• Most common shape is circular

• Hexagon and square shapes give high
packing factors
 Fiber Factor - Material

• Graphite and aramids have high strength

and stiffness
• Glass has low stiffness but cost less
 Matrix Factors
• What are the matrix factors which
contribute to the mechanical
performance of composites?
– Binds fibers together
– Protects fibers from environment
– Shielding from damage due to handling
– Distributing the load to fibers.
 Factors Other Than
Fiber and Matrix

• Fiber-matrix interface
– Chemical bonding
– Mechanical bonding
 Fiber Types

• Glass Fiber (first synthetic fiber)

• Boron (first advanced fiber)
• Carbon
• Silicon Carbide
 Types of Matrices

• Polymers
• Metals
• Ceramics
 Polymer Matrix
• Thermosets
– polyester
– epoxy
– polymide
• Thermoplastics
– polypropylene
– polyvinyl chloride
– nylon
 Metal Matrix

• Aluminum
• Titanium
• Copper
 Ceramic Matrix

• Carbon
• Silicon Carbide
• Calcium AluminoSilicate
• Lithium AluminoSilicate
Why do fibers have thin diameter?

• Less flaws
• More toughness and ductility
• Higher flexibility

Thin Fiber

Thick Fiber
 Less Flaws

3.0
2.8
Fiber Strengh [GPa]

2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0
Fiber Diameter [m]
 More Toughness and Ductility

• Fiber-matrix interface area is inversely

proportional to the diameter of the fibers
• Higher surface area of fiber-matrix interface
results in higher ductility and toughness,
and better transfer of loads.
 More Flexibility

• Flexibility is proportional to inverse of

• Young’s modulus
• Fourth power of diameter
• Thinner fibers hence have a higher
flexibility and are easy to handle in
manufacturing.
 Classification
• CONCRETE:
Gravel, sand and
Particulate Composites cement

• PAINT: Paint and

aluminum flakes
Flake Composites

• GRAPHITE/EPOXY
Graphite fibers in
epoxy matrix
Fiber Composites
 Polymer Matrix Composites

• What are the most common advanced

composites?
– Graphite/Epoxy
– Kevlar/Epoxy
– Boron/Epoxy
 Polymer Matrix Composites

• What are the drawbacks of polymer matrix

composites?
– Low operating temperatures
– High CTE and CMEs
– Low elastic properties in certian directions
 Are Carbon and Graphite the
Same?
• No
– Carbon fibers have 93%-95% carbon
content and graphite has >99%
carbon content
– Carbon fibers are produced at 2400o
F and graphite fibers are produced at
3400o F
 Table 1.4. Typical mechanical
properties of polymer matrix composites
and monolithic materials

Property Units Graphite Glass/ Steel Aluminum

/Epoxy Epoxy
Specific Gravity 1.6 1.8 7.8 2.6

Young’s modulus Msi 26.25 5.598 30.0 10.0

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 217.6 154.0 94.0 40.0

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 0.01111 4.778 6.5 12.8

Comparative Stiffness of PMCs
and Metals
How to make a PMC
 Schematic of Prepreg
Manufacturing
Controlled Heating Elements

Back-up Material
(Release Film)

Metering Device

Fiber Collimator Take-up

Roll

Fiber Package

Resin Solution
Prepreg Boron/Epoxy
Autoclave Lamination
 Filament Winding

Tension Adjust

Resin Coated Fibers

Fiber
Resin Bath Roving
Rotating Mandrel
 (b) Mat
(a) Preform

Clamp

Resin Resin Injection and Air

Mould Closure

Transfer Displacement

Molding Heat Heat

Resin Mould Fill and Resin Overspill

Cure

De-Moulding Trimming
 Common PMC Fibers &
Matrices
• Fibers
– Graphite
– Glass
– Kevlar
• Matrices
– Epoxy
– Phenolic
– Polyester
 Table 1.5 Typical mechanical
properties of fibers used in polymer
matrix composites
Property Units Graphite Aramid Glass Steel Aluminum
Specific Gravity 18. 1.4 2.5 7.8 2.6

Young’s modulus Msi 33.35 17.98 12.33 30 10

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 299.8 200.0 224.8 94 40

Axial Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F -0.722 -2.778 2.778 6.5 12.8
Cost Comparison of PMC fibers
Type of fiber Cost ($ per pound)
A-glass .65 - .90
C-glass .75 - 1.00
E-glass .75 - 1.00
S-2 Glass 6.00 - 8.00
Heavy Tow 9.00 - 12.00
Medium Tow 15.00 -20.00
Low Tow 40.00 -70.00+
Kev29 12.00 -14.00
Kev149 25.00 -30.00
 Manufacturing of Glass Fibers
Glass Feedstock

Electrically Heated Furnace

Protective Sizing Operation:

Water or Solvent Based
Glass Filaments

Filaments Collected Together to

Glass Strand Wound Form a Strand
onto a Forming Tube
and Oven Dried to
Remove Water/Solvent

Untwisted Chopping
Strand Operation

Roving Twisting of Strand Chopped Strand

Weaving
Application of Resin
Binder
Woven Fabric
Woven Chopped Strand
Roving Mat
 Glass Fiber Types

• E-glass (fiberglass) - electrical applications

• S-glass - strength applications
• C-glass - Corrosion resistant
• D-glass - Low dielectric applications
• A-glass - Appearance applications
• AR-glass - Alkali resistant
 Table 1.6 Comparison of
properties of E-glass and S-glass
Property Units E-glass S-glass
Specific Gravity 2.54 2.49

Young’s modulus Msi 10.5 12.4

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 500 665

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 2.8 3.1

 Table 1.7 Chemical Composition
of E-Glass and S-glass Fibers
% Weight
Material E-glass S-glass
Silicon Oxide 54 64

Aluminum Oxide 15 25

Calcium Oxide 17 0.01

Magnesium Oxide 4.5 10

Boron Oxide 8 0.01

Others 1.5 .8
 Fig 1.11 Manufacturing
Graphite Fibers

Stretching
Stabilization (200-300oC)

Off-Wind Creel
Carbonization (1000-1500 oC)

Graphitization (2500oC)

Wind-Up Creel Surface Treatment

 Resin Systems

• Polyester
• Phenolics
• Epoxy
• Silicone
• Polymide
 Properties of epoxy

PROPERTY UNITS EPOXY

Specific gravity - 1.28

Young’s modulus Msi 0.55

UTS Ksi 12.0

Curing Stages of Epoxy
Comparison of Resins
 Difference between thermosets
and thermoplastics
THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSET
Soften on heating and pressure, and hence Decompose on heating
easy to repair
High strains to failure Low strains to failure
Indefinite shelf life Definite shelf life
Can be reprocessed Cannot be reprocessed
Not tacky and easy to handle Tacky
Short cure cycles Long cure cycles
Higher fabrication temperature and Lower fabrication
viscosities have made it difficult to process temperature
Excellent solvent resistance Fair solvent resistance
Pre-Preg Graphite/Epoxy
Application of Polymer Matrix
Composites

Carbon-fiber shin
Space Shuttle
Jet Skis
Lear Fan
Fighter Jets
Corvette Leaf Springs
Snow Skis
I-beam
Pressure vessels
 Metal Matrix Composites

• What are metal-matrix composites?

Metal matrix composites have a metal

matrix.

Examples include silicon carbide fibers in

aluminum, graphite fibers in aluminum.
 Advantages of MMCs

• Higher specific strength and modulus over

metals.
• Lower coefficients of thermal expansion
than metals by reinforcing with graphite.
• Maintenance of high strength properties at
high temperatures.
Degrading properties in MMCs
(Fig 1.3)

• Are there any properties
which degrade when
metals are reinforced with
fibers?

2a Yes, they may have

reduced ductility and
fracture toughness.


 Typical mechanical properties of metal matrix composites

Property Units SiC/ Graphite/ Steel Aluminum

Aluminum Aluminum
Specific Gravity 2.6 2.2 7.8 2.6

Young’s modulus Msi 17 18 30 10

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 175 65 94 34

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 6.9 10 6.5 12.8

Boron Fiber
Step 0: Cutting the shape
Step 1: Apply Aluminum File
Step 3: Lay Up Desired Plies
 Step 4:Vacuum the specimen
TEP 4:

TO VACUUM
VACUUME

VACUUM
ENCAPSULATE
 Step5: Heat to Fabrication
: HEAT TO FABRICATION TEMPERATURE
Temperature
HEAT

HEAT
 Step 6: Apply Pressure and Hold
PPLY PRESSURE AND HOLD FOR CONSOLIDATION CYCLE

for Consolidation Cycle

OL, REMOVE AND CLEAN PART
Step 7: Cool, Remove and Clean
Part
 Foil

Fiber Mat

Foil
(a)

Stack
Consolidate

(c)
(b)

Schematic of
(d)

Diffusion Heat and Pressure

Bonding
Clean and
(e)
Trim + NDE

Secondary Fabrication (f)

Silicon Carbide/ Aluminum
Composite
Application of MMCs
Application of MMCs
Application of MMCs
 Ceramic Matrix Composites

• What are ceramic matrix composites?

• Ceramic matrix composites have

matrices of alumina, calcium alumino
silicate (CAS), lithium alumino silicate
(LAS). Examples include Silicon
Carbide/CAS and Carbon/LAS.
 Advantages of CMCs

• High strength, hardness and high

service temperatures
• Chemical inertness
• Low Density
Table 1.12 Typical fracture toughness
of monolithic materials and ceramic
matrix composites
Material Fracture Toughness, MPa m Fracture Toughness, Ksi in
Epoxy 3 2.73

Aluminum Alloys 35 31.85

Silicon Carbide 3 2.73

SiC/Al2O3 27 24.6

SiC/SiC 30 27.3
 Table 1.13 Typical mechanical
properties of some ceramic matrix
composites

Property Units SiC/LAS SiC/CAS Steel Aluminum

Specific Gravity 2.1 2.5 7.8 2.6

Young’s modulus Msi 13 17.55 30.0 10.0

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 72 58.0 94.0 34.0

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 2 2.5 6.5 12.8

 Glass Impregnated
Fiber Tape

Fibers
Glass Slurry Tank Manufacturing of
Ceramic Matrix
Binder Burnout
Stack of Glass Impregnated
Composites -
Fiber Tapes
500oC

Pressure
Slurry
Infiltration

Hot Pressing Fiber/Glass Composite

800 - 925oC
Application of CMCs
 Carbon-Carbon Compoistes

• What are carbon-carbon

composites?

Carbon - Carbon composites

have carbon fibers in carbon
matrix.
 Advantages of Carbon-Carbon
Composites
• Gradual failure
• Withstand high temperatures
• Low creep at high temperatures
• Low density
• High thermal conductivity
• Low and tailorable Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
 Advantages of Carbon-Carbon
Composites
• Great strength to weight ratio
• High modulus, thermal conductivity, and
electrical conductivity
• Good thermal shock resistance, abrasion
resistance, and fracture toughness
• Excellent high temperature durability in
inert or vacuum environment
• Good corrosion resistance
 Table 1.14 Typical mechanical
properties of carbon-carbon matrix
composites

Property Units C-C Steel Aluminum

Specific Gravity 1.68 7.8 2.6

Young’s modulus Msi 1.95 30 10

Ultimate Tensile Strength Ksi 5.180 94 34

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion in/in/F 1.11 6.5 12.8

Carbon-Carbon Manufacturing
(Fig 1.34)

Step 1 Step 2
Step 4 Step 5
Standard Lay-up
Gr/Phenolic and Pyrolysis Coating Sealing
Prepreg Cure

After 3 Impregnations

Resin
Impregnation

Step 3
Applications of C-C Composites

• Space Shuttle Nose Cones

– Re-entry temperature of 3092 K
• Aircraft Brakes
– Saves 450 kgs of mass
– Two-four times durability vs. steel
– 2.5 times specific heat of steel
 Recycling of Composites

• What types of process are used for

recycling of composites?
• Why is recycling of composites
complex?
• What can one do if one cannot separate
different types of composites?
 Recycling Continued

• What are the various steps in

mechanical recycling of short fiber-
reinforced composites?
• Where are mechanically recycled short
fiber composites used?
 Chemical Recycling

•Which chemical process shows the

most promise?
•Why is chemical recycling not as
popular as mechanical recycling?
 Definitions

• Isotropic body
• Homogeneous body
• Anisotropic body
• Nonhomogeneous body
• Lamina
• Laminate
 +
Fiber Matrix
Micromechanics of
a Lamina (Chapter 3)

Macromechanics of a Lamina
(Chapter 2)
Homogeneous Orthotropic
Layer Schematic
of Analysis
Macromechanics of a Laminate
(Chapter 4)

Analysis and Design of Laminated

of
Structures (Chapter 5)
Laminated
Structural Element
Composites
Laminate
An Artist’s Rendition of a
Composite Material