Biological Effects of Radiation &

Safety Consideration
Prof. Mizanul Hasan
Institute of Nuclear Medicine &
Ultrasound, BSMMU
 Radiation
• Radiation is a form of energy in motion through
space.
• It is emitted by one object and absorbed or
scattered by another.
• Radiation is of great importance in medical
diagnosis and therapy.
• However during passage through living tissue,
radiation loses energy by interaction with atoms
and molecules that ultimately causes alteration
of the living cells.
 Types of Radiation
1. Particulate radiations: Examples of these
radiations are energetic electrons, protons,
neutrons, alpha & beta particles etc. They have
mass and charge except neutrons.
2. Electromagnetic radiations: These radiations are
a form of energy in motion that does not have
mass and charge and can propagate as either
waves or discrete packets of energy called
photons. They travel with the velocity of light e.g.
radio wave, visible light, ultraviolet & infrared
heat waves, X and gamma rays.
 Types of Radiation
1. non-ionizing radiation : Radiation that has enough
energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause
them to vibrate, but not enough to remove electrons,
is referred to as non-ionizing radiation. e.g Radio –TV
waves, visible light, and microwaves.
2. Ionizing radiation : Radiation that falls within the
ionizing radiation range has enough energy to remove
tightly bound electrons from atoms, thus creating ions.
This is the type of radiation that people usually think of
as 'radiation.' We take advantage of its properties in
medical practice or to generate electric power.
 Ionizing Radiation

• Higher frequency radiation begins to have

enough energy to break chemical bonds. X-ray
and gamma ray radiation, which are at the upper
end of magnetic radiation have very high
frequency in the range of 100 billion Hertz and
very short wavelengths 1 million millionth of a
meter.
• Radiation in this range has extremely high energy.
It has enough energy to strip off electrons or, in
the case of very high-energy radiation, break up
the nucleus of atoms.
 Types of Ionizing Radiation

• Alpha particles - which include two protons

and two neutrons, not really used in medical
practice.
• Beta particles - which are essentially electrons
used in both diagnosis & therapy.
• X-Rays & Gamma Rays - which are pure energy
(photons) used in diagnosis and also in some
surgery (gamma knife).
 Uses of Radiation in Medicine
• Diagnostic X-Ray
• Nuclear Medicine, diagnosis & therapy
• CT scan
• PET-CT scan
• Radiotherapy
• Brachytherapy
 History of Radiation in Medical
Practice
• The history goes back to 1895 when Roentgen
discovers X-Ray in imaging of body parts.
• Beta and Gamma rays were used in nuclear
medicine in early 1940s.
• In early 1980s positron radiation came into
scene (PET).
• Use of radiation is gradually increasing in
diagnostic & therapeutic field of medicine.
 Biological Effects of Radiation
• Ionizing radiation has great effect on living
cells.
• People have seen its effect during 2nd World
war in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• The images of Chernobyl reactor accident in
1986 is still fresh in people’s mind.
• And we have seen the effect of the nuclear
power reactor accident during earthquake in
Fukushima, Japan in March 2011.
 Biological Effects of Radiation
• The DNA molecules in the nucleus of the cell is
the most sensitive to radiation.
• If DNA damage occurs in germ cells, future
offspring may be affected.
• Chromosomes are likely to be affected by
mutations of the DNA molecules. However,
chromosomes themselves can be cleaved by
radiation by producing single or double breaks
in the arms.
 Radiation Damage to Chromosomes
• Indirect damage
– Water molecule is ionized, breaks apart, and forms OH free radical.
– OH free radical contains an unpaired electron in the outer shell and is
highly reactive: Reacts with DNA.
– 75 percent of radiation-caused DNA damage is due to OH free radical.
• Direct damage
– DNA molecule is struck by radiation, ionized, resulting in damage.
 Biological Effects of Radiation
1. Stochastic Effects: The biological effects that
occur randomly, the probability of which
increases with increasing dose without any
threshold. Radiation induced hereditary effects
and cancer incidence are examples of stochastic
effects.
2. Non-stochastic or deterministic Effects: These are
induced by high radiation doses. These effects
have a threshold dose below which no damage is
evident e.g cataract, skin erythema, fibrosis etc.
Radiation Effects on Embryo/Fetus
• Embryo/fetus is rapidly developing so is more
sensitive to a possible radiation effect than an
adult.
• Effects vary with amount of radiation and
stage of development of the embryo/fetus.
• Principal effects are loss of pregnancy,
malformations, and mental retardation.
 Acute Effect of Total Body Irradiation
• Dose dependant
• Starting from GI syndromes like nausea,
vomiting to death.
• Almost all the body systems are affected.
• Hemopoietic system, GIT, CNS, CVS are mostly
affected.
 Long Term Effects of Radiation
• Somatic Effects: Cancer, radiation damage to
skin, Leukemia, Sterility, shortening of life.
• Genetic Effects: Expressed in future
generations e.g Down syndrome,
achondroplasia, retinoblastoma, cystic
fibrosis, sickle cell anemia and other
chromosomal disorders.
 Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity
• Dose Rate – delivery of dose per unit time
• Linear Energy Transfer (LET) – High-LET
radiation causes more cell death than low-LET
radiation.
• Chemicals – Several chemicals have been
found to augment or diminish the effect
• Stage of Cell Cycle – mostly occurs in the
period of mitosis.
 Cell Sensitivity
• Actively dividing cells are most sensitive to radiation
damage.

– Tissues that are more sensitive include skin, hair,

early blood cells, and lining of the intestine.

– Tissues that are less sensitive include muscle,

bone, brain, and connective tissue.
 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
• Risks from diagnostic procedures include both
somatic and genetic effects.
• Normally, these risks are minimal because
doses are low.
• However it can not be said that there is no
risk.
• So we should follow some safety regulations.
 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
• Avoid radiation procedures in pregnant
women. (Absolute contradiction)
• Risk vs. Benefit
• ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable).
• Time, Distance & Shielding.
• Personal Monitoring for radiation workers.
 CONCLUSION
• No. of both radiation related diagnosis and
treatment is increasing day by day and
contributing in medical science.
• But radiation has got proven biological effects.
• So we should strictly follow the rules &
regulations to ensure safe use of radiation.
THANK YOU