EE 258 LOAD-FLOW STUDIES

Lecturer : Ambrosio T. Magtajas

NOD-MSO, NGCP
 Course Outline
• Introduction
• System Representation
• Power Flow in Transmission Line
• Power Flow Problem/Equations
• Gauss-Seidel Method
• Newton-Raphson Method/Fast De-Coupled
• Voltage Control (Generator Capability Curve, On-
Load-Tap-Changing Transformer, Shunt Capacitor
& Reactor)
• Computer Simulations
 References
Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th Ed.
by William D. Stevenson, Jr.
Power System Analysis, 2nd Ed.
by Hadi Saadat
Power System Analysis, 2nd Ed.
by Charles A. Gross
Power System Analysis and Design
by Glover & Sarma
 Introduction
• Also known as Power-flow Studies
• One of the most important elements of Power
System Analysis (Fault Studies, Stability &
Control, Reliability, Operation & Control, etc.)
• It involves the calculation of real & reactive
(MW & MVAR) power flows and voltages of a
transmission network for a specified terminal
or bus conditions
 bus i Pi Pj bus j
Qi Qj
Vi δi Vj δj

• Deals with steady-state analysis of a power

system during normal operating condition.
• The system is assumed to be operating under
balanced condition & is represented by a
single-phase network
• Principles involve are straightforward, but a
study relating to a real power system can be
carried out only with a digital computer.
• The required numerical computations are
performed systematically by means of an
iterative procedure: Gauss-Seidel , Newton-
Raphson , Fast Decoupled Methods
AREAS OF APPLICATION
Classification: On-Line and Off-Line Load Flow
• On-Line
Operation: Emergency shutdown of transmission lines
& generating unit/plant (take a snap shot
of the system & run LF)
• Off-Line
Planning: Daily MW & MVAR generation schedule,
Future Expansion( lines, substations, &
power plants, their appropriate size &
location), System Studies( size & location of
Capacitor banks/Reactors, Static VAR
Compensator)
• Off-Line
Planning: Contingency Analysis (Planned Outage of
Power Plant/Transmission Line)

Fault Study (LF determines the pre-fault condition

of the system such as bus voltage &
line currents. Required for relay setting
& sizing of CB)

Stability Study (Load-Flow result data is required as

initial or pre-disturbance conditions to
solve stability problem
System Representation (Modeling)
• System Components
1. Synchronous Generator- MW and generator
bus voltage values are known from historical
record (Generation Logsheets), load forecast,
or measurement .
bus i
Pi, MW G
GG

Vi δi
2. Transformer- inductive reactance is obtained
from data provided by the manufacturer.
Magnetizing reactance omitted (magnetizing
current is less than 5% of rated current).

jXt
HV Side LV Side
bus i bus j
3. Transmission Line- series resistance & inductance
& shunt capacitance are obtained based from
Table of Standard Conductor Sizes/Types(single or
bundled), line length, conductor configuration &
spacing.
i Z=R + jXL j

Y/2 Y/2
. .
Nominal π Circuit
4. Load – MW and MVAR values are known
from historical record (Transmission
Logsheets), load forecast, or measurement.
Quite often in practice only real power is
known and the reactive power is then based
on an assumed power factor such as 0.85
(lagging) or higher.

bus i Pi, MW
Qi, MVAR
• Per-unit Quantities
The per-unit value of any quantity is
defined as the ratio of the quantity to its base
expressed as a decimal.
For instance, if a base voltage of 120 kV is
chosen, voltages of 108, 120, and 126 kV
become 0.90, 1.00, and 1.05 per-unit or 90,
100, and 105 percent, respectively.
 Voltage, current, kilovoltamperes, and
impedance are so related that selection of
base values for any two of them determines
the base values of the remaining two.
Usually, base MVA and base KV are the
quantities selected to specify the base.
Unless otherwise specified, a given value of
base voltage in a three-phase system is a line-
to-line voltage, and a given value of base kVA
or MVA is the total three-phase base.
For 3-phase system:
Base Current
Ib = base kVA3φ / 1.732 base voltage, kVLL
Base Impedance
Zb = (base voltage, kVLL)²x1000/base kVA3φ
Zb = (base voltage, kVLL)² / base MVA3φ
Base Power
Pb = Qb = Sb,
S = P + jQ , Spu = S / Sb
Spu = (P + jQ) / Sb, Ppu = P/ Sb & Qpu = Q/Sb
Changing the Base of Per-Unit Quantities
Sometimes the per-unit impedance of a com-
ponent of a system is expressed on a base other
than the one selected as base for the part of the
system in which the component is located. Since
all impedances in any one part of a system must
be expressed on the same impedance base
when making computations, it is necessary to
have a means of converting per-unit impedances
from one base to another.
 The kV & MVA bases of per-unit impedance of
a component are its nameplate ratings.
To change from per-unit impedance on a
given base to per-unit impedance on a new
base, the following equation applies:

Zpu(N) = Zpu(G)[ kVb(G)/kVb(N)]²[MVAb(N)/MVAb(G)]

Give advantages of using PU system
Assignment: Prob 3.13, Grainger & Stevenson, Jr.
 Types of Buses

Four unknown quantities associated with each

bus i are Pi, Qi, voltage angle δi, and voltage
magnitude Vi . Two of the four quantities are
specified and the remaining two are calcula-
ted. Specified quantities are chosen according
to bus type. The system buses are generally
classified into three types.
Slack or Swing bus. Is taken as reference where
the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage
are specified. This bus makes up the difference
between the scheduled loads and generated
power that are caused by the losses in the
network. For convenience bus 1 is almost
always designated as the slack bus and the
usual practice is to set δ1 = 0°.
Specified: Vi and δi
Unknown: Pi and Qi
Load Buses. Are non-generator buses where the
real and reactive powers drawn from the
system by the load (negative inputs to the
system) are known. These buses are also called
P-Q buses.
Specified: Pi and Qi
Unknown: Vi and δi

Voltage-Controlled Buses. These buses are the

generator buses. At these buses to which there
is a generator connected the MW generation
can be controlled by adjusting the prime
mover, and the voltage magnitude can be
controlled by adjusting the generator
excitation. At these buses, the real power and
voltage magnitude are specified. The limits on
the value of the reactive power are also
specified. They are also known as regulated
and P-V buses.
Specified: Pi and Vi
Unknown: Qi and δi
Network Equations
The system in Load-flow study is assumed to
be operating under balanced condition & is
represented by a single-phase network.
Among the network equations that could
represent the relationship between network
bus voltages and currents, the node equations
are generally preferred.

The network equations in terms of the node

admittance matrix can be written as follows:
 I1 Y11 Y12 … Y1n V1
I2 Y21 Y22 … Y2n V2
I3 = Y31 Y32 … Y3n V3
... … … … … …
In Yn1 Yn2 … Ynn Vn

where n is the total number of buses

Yii is the self admittance of node i. It is
the sum of all the admittances
terminating at bus i.
Yij is the mutual admittance between
buses i and j. It is the negative of the
sum of all admittances between buses i
and j
Vi is the phasor voltage to ground at bus i
Ii is the phasor current flowing into the
network at bus i
Example: Write the node admittance matrix of the
network shown below.

3 yd 2
1 yb
I1 ye I2
ya yc
Y11= ya + yb Y12= 0 Y13= -yb
Y21= 0 Y22= yd + ye Y23= -(yd + ye)
Y31= -yb Y32= -(yd + ye) Y33= yb+yc+yd+ye
 Power-Flow Problem/Equations
Power Flow Equations
Consider a typical bus of a power system
network as shown. Transmission lines are
represented by their equivalent π-models
where impedances have been converted to
per unit.
 Vi yi1 V1

yi2 V2
Ii
yin Vn

bus i
yi0
V0
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at bus i
Ii = yi0Vi + yi1(Vi-V1) + yi2(Vi-V2) +…+ yin(Vi-Vn)
Ii = (yi0+yi1+yi2+…+yin)Vi - yi1V1- yi2V2-…-yinVn
or n n
Ii = Vi  yij -  yijVj j≠ i (1)
j 0 j 1

The real and reactive power at bus i is

Si = Vi Ii* = Pi + jQi
Ii* = (Pi + jQi)/Vi , 1 / Ii = Vi* / (Pi – jQi)
Ii = (Pi – jQi)/ Vi* substitute to (1)
 n n
(Pi – jQi) = Vi  yij -  yijVj j≠ i
j 0 j 1
Vi* n
Vi = 1 (Pi – jQi) +  yijVj j≠ i
j 1
Yii Vi*
n
where Yii =  yij
j 0
Line Flows and losses
After the iterative solution of bus voltages,
the next step is the computation of line flows
and losses. Consider the line connecting the
two buses i and j in the figure. The line current
Ii at bus i defined positive in the direction
Ii Vi Iij Vj Ij
Iio yij Ijo
yio yjo
The line current Ii at bus i defined positive in the
direction is
Ii = Iij + Iio = yij (Vi-Vj) + yio(Vi-Vo) , Vo=0
Ii = yij (Vi-Vj) + yioVi
Similarly, the line current Ij at bus j defined
positive in the direction is
Ij + Iij = Ijo
Ij = -Iij + Ijo = -yij(Vi-Vj)+yjo(Vj-Vo)
Ij = yij(Vj-Vi) + yjoVj
The complex power Sij from bus i to j and Sji from
bus j to i are Sij=Vi Ii* and Sji=Vj Ij*
The power loss in the line ij is the algebraic
sum of the power flows as
SLij = Sij + Sji