CONTENTS

1 Electric Supply System

2 Typical a.c. Power Supply Scheme
3 Comparison of D.C. and A.C. Transmission
4 Advantages of High Transmission Voltage
5 Various Systems of Power Transmission
6 Comparison of Conductor Material in Overhead System
9 Elements of a Transmission line
10 Economics of Power Transmission
11 Economic Choice of Conductor size
12 Economic Choice of Transmission Voltage
13 Requirements of Satisfactory Electric Supply
Introduction
Need of bulk energy shifted the power stations at favorable
places away from the load/ consumers.

A sophisticated supply system is needed to carry energy from

generation systems to consumers.

There is a large network of conductors between the power

station and the consumers.

This network can be broadly divided into two parts :

1. Transmission
2. Distribution
The transportation or delivery of electric power from a power
station to consumers’ premises is known as electric supply system.
The electric supply system can be broadly classified into:

1. D.C or A.C system

2. Overhead or underground system

For generation and transmission:

3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted as an

economical proposition.

For distribution :

3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system is adopted.

 Transmission system and distribution system are
further divided into tow parts:

Transmission system:

1. Primary transmission
2. Secondary transmission

Distribution system

1. Primary distribution
2. Secondary distribution.
Generating station :

3-phase alternators operating in parallel

Generation voltage is 11 kV (in pakistan 3.3, 6.6,11, 13.8 kv)

Generation voltage 11 kV is stepped up to 132 kV

High voltage transmission helps saving in conductor material

and high transmission efficiency.

Limits imposed on high voltage transmission due to insulation

problem, increased cost of switchgear and transformer.

The choice of proper transmission voltage is essentially a

question of economics.
Primary transmission:

Generally the primary transmission is carried at 66 kV, 132 kV,

220 kV or 400 kV.

It is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to

the .

Secondary transmission:

In a certain power scheme, there may be no secondary transmission.

At the receiving station (RS) the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step-
down transformers.
Electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead
system to various sub-stations (SS) located at the
Primary distribution:

In some schemes there is only distribution and no transmission.

At the sub-station (SS) voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV,

3-phase, 3-wire.

The 11 kV lines run along the .

Secondary distribution:
11 kV is delivered to distribution sub-stations (DS).

DS are located near the and step down

the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for secondary distribution.

The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any
phase and neutral is 220 V.
1. Feeders
2. Distributors
3. Service mains
General layout of electricity
networks. Voltages and
depictions of electrical lines
are typical for Germany and
other European systems.
 The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or
a.c.
Each system has its own merits and demerits.

1. D.C. transmission

Transmission of d.c. power has been receiving the active

consideration of engineers due to its numerous advantages.

Advantages: The high voltage d.c. transmission has the following

advantages over high voltage a.c. transmission :

1. Requires only two conductors transmission.

2. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and

surge problems in d.c. transmission.
3. Less voltage drop as compared to A.C due to absence of
inductance .

4. No skin effect ,entire cross-section of the line conductor is

utilised.

5. DC line requires less insulation as potential stress on the

insulation is less.

6. Less corona loss and reduced interference with

communication circuits.

7. The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric

losses.

8. No stability problems and synchronising difficulties.

Disadvantages:

1. Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage

2. The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up

3. The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations
2. A.C. transmission:
Electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of AC.
Advantages:
1. The power can be generated at high voltages.
2. The maintenance of AC sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
3. The AC voltage can be stepped up or stepped down .
Disadvantages:
1. Requires more copper than a DC line.
2. Complicated construction than a DC transmission line.
3. Effective resistance of the line is increased due to skin effect.
4. Continuous loss of power due to charging current even
when the line is open due to the capacitance of AC line
Conclusion
High voltage DC transmission is superior to high voltage AC
transmission.

The introduction of mercury arc rectifiers and thyratrons can

convert AC into DC and vice-versa easily and efficiently.
Such devices can operate upto 30 MW at 400 kV in single units.

Present day trend:

•AC for generation and distribution
•High voltage DC for transmission
HVDC technology is feasible over 600 km

The longest HVDC link in the world is currently the Xiangjiaba-Shanghai 2,071 km 6400 MW link

Siemens to supply world’s most

powerful 800-kV HVDC transformer
to China
The transmission of electric power is carried at high voltages due
to the following reasons :
Consider the transmission of electric power by a .

P = power transmitted in watts

I = P/ √3 (V cosφ)
V = line voltage in volts
cos φ = power factor of the load
R = ρɭ/a ɭ = length of the line in metres
R = resistance per conductor in ohms
ρ = resistivity of conductor material
W = 3I2 R
a = area of X-section of conductor
W = 3 x [P/ √3 (V cosφ)]2 x ρ ɭ /a
W=P2 ρ ɭ / V2 cos2φ a

a =P2 ρ ɭ / W V2 cos2φ
 = 3 a ɭ = 3 x [P2 ρ ɭ /W V2 cos2φ ] x ɭ

= 3 P2 ρ ɭ 2/ W V2 cos2φ

It is clear that for given values of P, l, ρ and W, the volume of

conductor material required is inversely proportional to the
square of transmission voltage and power factor.
OR
Input power = Power transmitted + Total losses
Input power = P+ Total losses W=P2 ρ ɭ / V2 cos2φ a

=P + P2 ρ ɭ / V2 cos2φ a

Assuming J to be the current density of the conductor

a = I/J

Input power = P+ P2 ρ ɭ / V2 cos2φ x ( I/ J)

I = P/ √3 (V cosφ)
= P+ [P2 ρ ɭ J / V2 cos2φ] x (1/ I)
= P+ [P2 ρ ɭ J / V2 cos2φ] x √3 (V cosφ)/ P
= P+ √3 P J ρ ɭ / V cosφ
=P[1+ √3 J ρ ɭ / V cosφ ]
 Input power =P[1+ √3 J ρ ɭ / V cosφ ]

Transmission efficiency = Output power / Input power

P
Transmission efficiency =
P[1+ √3 J ρ ɭ / V cosφ ]

= 1
1+ √3 J ρ ɭ / V cosφ

x
From binomial theorem (1 + x)n = 1 + nx/1! + n(n - 1)x2/ 2! + n(n - 1)(n - 2)x3 /3! + ...

= (1+ √3 J ρ ɭ / V cosφ )-1

= [1+ (-1) √3 J ρ ɭ / V cosφ x 1/ 1!+ …… ]
Transmission efficiency = 1- √3 J ρ ɭ
V cosφ
 The percentage of voltage drop = Line drop x 100
Source Voltage
Line drop = I R
=I×ρɭ/a
= I × ρ ɭ / (I/J )
=ρɭJ

%age line drop = ρɭJ

X 100
V
It must be realized that high transmission voltage results in:
1. Increased cost of insulating the conductors
2. Increased cost of transformers, switchgear and
other terminal apparatus.

There is a limit to the higher transmission voltage .

This limit is reached when the saving in cost of

conductor material due to higher voltage is offset by the
increased cost of insulation, transformer, switchgear etc
3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted.

under special circumstances other systems can also be

used for transmission.

The different possible systems of transmission are :

1. D.C. system
a) D.C. two-wire.
b) D.C. two-wire with mid-point earthed.
c) D.C. three-wire.
2. Single-phase A.C. system
a) Single-phase two-wire.
b) Single-phase two-wire with mid-point earthed.
c) Single-phase three-wire.

3. Two-phase A.C. system

a) Two-phase four-wire.
b) Two-phase three wire.

4. Three-phase A.C. system

a) Three-phase three-wire.
b) Three-phase four-wire.
 ,a
comparison is required in terms of

The best system for transmission of power

is that for which the volume of conductor material
required is minimum.

The shall be on the basis of equal

.
There are two cases :
 will be assumed in each case:

1. Same power transmitted by each system.

2. The distance over which power is
transmitted remains the same.
3. The line losses are the same in each case.
4. The maximum voltage between any conductor and
earth is the same in each case.
 ɭ
Max. voltage between conductors = Vm
Power to be transmitted = P

Load current I1 = P/Vm

If R1 is the resistance of each line conductor

R1 = ρ ɭ /a1
a1 is the area of X-section of the conductor
Coductor volume= 2 a1 ɭ

Line losses W = 2 I21 R1

= 2 (P/Vm)2 X (ρ ɭ /a1)
Area of X-section, a1 = 2 P2ρ ɭ / W V2m
Volume of conductor material required = 2 a1 ɭ
= 2 x [2 P2ρ ɭ / W V2m] x ɭ
= 4P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m

This system is the basis for comparison with

other systems.

Therefore, volume ofconductor material required in

this system shall be taken as the basic quantity.
The maximum voltage between any conductor and earth is Vm so
that maximum voltage between conductors is 2Vm.

Load current, I2 = P/2Vm

R2 = ρ ɭ /a2

Line losses, W = 2 I22 R2

= 2 (P/2Vm)2 X (ρ ɭ /a2)

Area of X-section, a2 = 2 P2ρ ɭ / 2 W V2m

 Volume of conductor material required
= 2 a2 ɭ
= 2 x [2 P2ρ ɭ / 2W V2m] x ɭ
= P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m
= [P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m ] x (4/4) (multiplying and dividing by 4)

As 4P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m = K

The volume of conductor material required in this system is

that required in a
with one conductor earthed.
Two outers and a middle or neutral wire earthed at the generator
end.

If the load is balanced, the current in the neutral wire is zero.

Assuming balanced loads.

Load current, I3 = P/2Vm

R3 = ρ ɭ /a3

Line losses, W = 2 I23 R3

= 2 (P/2Vm)2 X (ρ ɭ /a3)

Area of X-section, a3 = 2 P2ρ ɭ / 2 W V2m

Assuming the area of X-section of neutral wire to be

Volume of conductor material required

= 2.5 a3 ɭ
= 2.5 x [2 P2ρ ɭ / 2W V2m] x ɭ
= (2.5/2) [ P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m]
= (2.5/2 )[P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m ] x (4/4) (multiplying and dividing by 4)
= (2.5/8 )[P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m ]
= (2.5/8 )[K] x (2/2 ) (multiplying and dividing by 2)

Volume of conductor material required in this system is

of what is required for a with
one conductor earthed.
The maximum voltage between conductors is Vm so that r.m.s.
value of voltage between them is Vm / √2 .
Load power factor to be cos φ

Load current
I4 = P/[( Vm / √2) x cos φ ]
= √2 P/Vm cos φ

R4 = ρ ɭ /a4

Line losses
W = 2 I24 R4
= 2 [√2 P/Vm cos φ]2 X (ρ ɭ /a4)
=4 P2 ρ ɭ /V2m cos φ2 a4
Area of X-section
a4 = 4 P2 ρ ɭ /W V2m cos2φ

Volume of conductor material required

= 2 a4 ɭ
= 2 x [4 P2 ρ ɭ /W V2m cos2φ ] x ɭ
=( 2/ cos φ2) x [4 P2 ρ ɭ2 /W V2m]
As 4P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m = K

The volume of conductor material required in this

system times that .
The two wires possess equal and opposite voltages to earth.

The maximum voltage between the two wires is 2Vm

The r.m.s. value of voltage between conductors is = 2Vm / √2

= √2 Vm
(For Detail calculation refer page#136 of book)

Volume of conductor material required

Volume of conductor material required

(For Detail calculation refer page#136 of book)

Volume of conductor material required

(For Detail calculation refer page#137 of book)

Volume of conductor material required

(For Detail calculation refer page#137, 138 of book)

The 3-phase, 3- wire system may be star connected or delta connected

The neutral point N is earthed.

R.M.S. voltage per phase = Vm / √2

Power transmitted per phase = P/3

Load current per phase

As IL = P/VL cos φ

I9 =(P/3) /(Vm/ √2 cos φ )

= √2 P /3Vmcos φ )
Let a9 be the area of X-section of each conductor.
Line losses
W = 3 I9 2x R9
= 3x[(√2 P /3Vmcos φ)] 2 x ρ ɭ /a9
= 2P2ρ ɭ /3 a9Vm2cos2φ

Area of X-section a9 =2 P2ρ ɭ /3W Vm2cos2φ

Volume of conductor material required

= 3 a9 x ɭ
=3 [2 P2ρ ɭ /3W Vm2cos2φ] x ɭ
=2 P2ρ ɭ2 /3W Vm2cos2φ ) (multiplying and dividing by 2)

As 4P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m = K

The volume of conductor material required for this system is

times that required
4th or neutral wire is taken from the neutral point.

The area of X-section of the neutral wire is generally one-half

that of the line conductor.
If the loads are balanced, then current through the neutral
wire is zero.
Assuming balanced loads and
p.f. of the load as cos φ

Line losses
W = Same as in 3 phase, 3-wire
= 2P2ρ ɭ /3 a10Vm2cos2φ
Area of X-section, a10 = = 2P2ρ ɭ /3 W Vm2cos2φ
As the that of
any line conductor.

Volume of conductor material required

= 3.5 x a10 x ɭ
= 3.5x [2P2ρ ɭ /3 W Vm2cos2φ] x ɭ
= 7P2ρ ɭ 2/3 W Vm2cos2φ
=(7/3 cos2φ )x ( P2ρ ɭ 2/W Vm2)
=(7/3 cos2φ )x ( P2ρ ɭ 2/W Vm2) (multiplying and dividing by 4)

As 4P2ρ ɭ2/ W V2m = K

The volume of conductor material required for this system

that required for
D.C. SYSTEM
There is a great if d.c. system
is adopted for transmission of electric power

Due to , d.c. system is not used for

transmission.
3-PHASE A.C. SYSTEM

3-phase a.c. system is most suitable for transmission due to two

reasons.

1. There is saving in conductor material.

2. This system is and .
 Transmission of electric power is done at high voltage by 3- phase,
3-wire overhead system.

The principal elements of a high-voltage transmission line are :

1. Conductors:
 usually three for a single-circuit line and six for a double-circuit
line.
usual material is aluminium reinforced with steel
2. Step-up and step-down transformers
use of transformers permits power to be transmitted at high
efficiency
3. Line insulators:
Mechanically support the line conductors.

Isolate conductors electrically from the ground.

4. Support:
Generally steel towers and provide support to the conductors.

5. Protective devices:
Ground wires, lightning arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.

They ensure the satisfactory service of the transmission line.

6. Voltage regulating devices:
Maintain the voltage at the receiving end within permissible
limits.
The Engineer must design the various parts of transmission
scheme in a way that maximum economy is achieved.

Following two fundamental economic principles influence the

electrical design of a transmission line :
Determination of proper size of conductor is of vital importance.

is that for which

the .

The X-sectional area of the conductor is decided on the basis of

minimum annual cost.

The of transmission line can be divided

broadly into two parts:

1. Annual charge on capital outlay

2. Annual cost of energy wasted in the conductor.
Annual charge on an can be expressed
as:
Annual charge = P1 + P2 a ………..(1)

P1 and P2 are constants and a is the area of X-section of the conductor

Insulator cost is constant

Conductor cost is proportional to the area of X-section

Cost of supports and their erection is partly constant and partly

proportional to area of X-section of the conductor
Energy lost mainly in the conductor due to I2R losses.

Assuming a constant current in the conductor throughout the year

 Energy lost in the conductor is proportional to resistance.

energy lost in the conductor is inversely proportional to area of X-

section.
Annual cost of energy wasted = P3 / a …………….(2)

Total annual cost, C = exp (1) + exp (2)

= P1 + P2 a + P3 / a …………..(3)

In exp. (3), only area of X-section a is variable.

 Therefore, the

d/da (C) = 0
………………….
P2 a =P3 /a

Kelvin’s Law can also be as:

The most economical area of conductor is that for which the
variable part of annual charge cost of energy
losses per year.
(1) shows the relation between the
annual charge and the area
of X-section a of the conductor

(2) gives the relation between

ted and
X-sectional area a
(Adding curves (1) and (2), the curve (3)
is obtained.)

(3) This curve shows the relation

between
of transmission line and area of
X-section a.
 In practice, the limitations of this law are :

1. Not easy to estimate the

on account of interest and depreciation on the capital

outlay is in the form is strictly speaking

3. **Does not take into account several physical factors like

, etc.

determined by this law may

on the capital outlay

 ,

The transmission voltage for which the cost of:

1. conductors
2. insulators
3. transformers
4. Switchgear
5. other terminal apparatus

For finding the economical transmission voltage:

, and
are assumed to be known.
For standard transmission voltage work out the
following costs :
1. Transformers:
Cost increases slowly with the increase in transmission voltage.

2. Switchgear:
Cost also increases with the increase in transmission voltage.

3. Lightning arrestor:
cost increases rapidly with the increase in transmission voltage.
4. Insulation and supports:
cost increases sharply with the increase in transmission voltage.
5.Conductor:
cost decreases with the increase in transmission voltage
Curve is drawn for of transmission against voltage

**This method is rarely used in practice as different costs cannot

be determined with a fair degree of accuracy.
Present day trend:
Empirical formulae is used for finding the economical
transmission voltage.

The economic voltage between lines in a 3-phase a.c. system is:

V = line voltage in kV
P = maximum kW per phase to be delivered to single circuit
ɭ = distance of transmission line in km
1. Voltage regulation

2. Dependability

3. Balanced voltage

4. Efficiency

5. Frequency

6. Sinusoidal waveform.

7. Freedom from inductive interference.