QUALITY

Quality consists of the capacity to satisfy wants

(Deming)

Quality is fitness for use (Juran)

Quality is conformance to requirements (Crosby)

 QUALITY

The totality of features and characteristics

of a product or service that bear on its
ability to satisfy stated or implied needs

(ISO 8402: Quality Vocabulary)

DARVIN’S DIMENSIONS TO QUALITY

• Performance
• basic operating characteristic
• Features
• "extra" items added to basic
• Reliability
• probability that product will operate over time
• Conformance
• meeting pre-established standards
DARVIN’S DIMENSIONS TO QUALITY

• Durability
• life span before replacement
• Serviceability
• ease of getting repairs, speed & competence of
repairs
• Aesthetics
• look, feel, sound, smell or taste
• Perceived quality
• subjective perceptions based on brand name,
advertising, etc.
 QUALITY

• Subjective

• Customer centric
 CUSTOMERS

• DISSATISFIED CUSTOMERS

• SATISFIED CUSTOMERS

• DELIGHTED CUSTOMERS
 CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS
• Quality

• Cost

• Delivery

• Flexibility

• Responsiveness
 TQM
TQM IS AN INTEGRATED
ORGANISATIONAL APPROACH IN
ALL THE ACTIVITIES AFFECTING
QUALITY TO BRING IN CUSTOMER
SATISFACTION/DELIGHT THROUGH
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
 PILLARS OF TQM

• CUSTOMER FOCUS

• UNIVERSAL RESPONSIBILITY

• DEFECTS PREVENTION

• CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
 Elements of TQM
• SUSTAINED MANAGEMENT
COMMITMENT
– Leadership
• Develop a mission statement
• Develop effective strategies and
supporting plans
• Identify critical processes and success
factors
• Review the management structure
• Empowerment
 Elements of TQM
SUSTAINED MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
- Quality Culture
Openness
Customer focus & orientation
Attitude for continuous improvement
Teamwork
Systems approach
Quantitative orientation
 Elements of TQM

• Quality measurement

– Quality costs

• Cost of conformance
• Cost of non conformance
 Elements of TQM
• Root cause corrective action

Ask why 5 times

Cause & effect diagrams

 Elements of TQM
• Employee Involvement
– It implies the whole hearted physiological &
psychological participation by every employee in the
activities of the organization
• Decision making with consensus
• Team working
• Group dynamics
• Belief system of the organization
• Motivating
• Suggestion schemes
• Listening
 Elements of TQM
• Employee empowerment
– Employee empowerment means that management
recognizes an employee's ability to identify and solve
problems and provides with tools and authority
required to continuously improve their
performance.
• Providing authority
• Having common vision
• Providing right tools
• Training
• Rewarding success
 Elements of TQM

• Thinking statistically
• Synergy of Teams
• Supplier Teaming
• Training
– Quality tools
 Elements of TQM
• Value Improvement
– MUDA elimination
– Good house keeping (5S)
• Seiri (Sort)
• Seiton (Straighten)
• Seiso (Scrub)
• Seiketsu (Systematize)
• Shitsuke (Standardize)
 Elements of TQM
• Benchmarking
Benchmarking is the process of
identification of best practices that
will lead to world class performance
and matching or surpassing the
same.
Competitive benchmarking
Generic benchmarking
 Elements of TQM

• Phases of Benchmarking

– Planning

– Analysis

– Action
 Elements of TQM

• Process orientation

– SPC
CONVENTIONAL THINKING

Q P C
 NEW THINKING

Q P C
 QUALIY GURUS

• Edwards Deming
• Joseph Juran
• Philips Crosby
• Genichi Taguchi
• Masaaki Imai
 EDWARDS DEMING

The system of profound knowledge

Theory of systems
Theory of variation
Theory of knowledge
Knowledge of psychology
 EDWARDS DEMING
• P D C A cycle

• Prevention by process improvement

• Chain reaction for quality improvement

• Common cause and special cause variation

 EDWARDS DEMING

Deadly diseases
Lack of constancy
Short term profits
Performance appraisals
Job hopping
Use of visible figures only
 EDWARDS DEMING
14 Points for management
Create constancy of purpose for
continual improvement of Product
and service
Adopt the new philosophy for economic
stability
Cease dependence on inspection to
achieve quality
 EDWARDS DEMING
End the practice of awarding business on price
tag
Improve constantly and for ever the system of
production and service
Institute training on the job
Adopt and institute modern methods of
supervision and leadership
Drive out fear
Break down barriers between departments and
individuals
 EDWARDS DEMING
Eliminate the use of slogans, posters, etc
Eliminate work standards and numerical quotas
Remove barriers that robe the hourly worker of
the right to pride in workmanship
Institute vigorous programme of education and
retraining
Define top management's permanent
commitment to ever-improving
quality and productivity
 JOSEPH JURAN

Quality Trilogy

Quality Planning

Quality Control

Quality Improvement
 JOSEPH JURAN
Breakthrough sequence - 10 Steps
Create the awareness of the need and opportunity
for quality improvement
Set goals for continuous improvement
Build an organization to achieve goals by
establishing a quality council, identifying
problems, selecting a project, appointing teams
and choosing facilitators
 JOSEPH JURAN
Give everyone training
Carry out projects to solve problems
Report progress
Show recognition
Communicate results
Keep a record of success
Incorporate annual improvement into
company's regular systems and process
and thereby maintain momentum
 PHILIP CROSBY
• Do it right first time
• Zero defects and zero defects day
• Four absolutes of quality
– The definition of quality is conformance to
requirements, not goodness
– The system of quality is prevention
– The performance standard is zero defects
– The measurement of quality is the price of
non-conformance
 PHILIP CROSBY
• Quality vaccine (3 distinct management
actions)

– Determination

– Education

– Implementation
 PHILIP CROSBY

• Six Cs
– Comprehension
– Commitment
– Competence
– Communication
– Correction
– Continuance
 PHILIP CROSBY
• 14 steps for quality improvement
Management commitment
The quality improvement team
Measurement
The cost of quality
Quality awareness
Corrective action
Zero defects planning
 PHILIP CROSBY
Employee education
Zero defects day
Goal setting
Error cause removal
Recognition
Quality council
Do it all over again
 SIMILARITIES
• Management’s responsibility to establish
an organizational culture.
• Continuous education & training at all
levels.
• Effective communication and team work.
• More than 85% of the quality problems
are attributed to management
policy/action.
 SIMILARITIES

• Customer-focused quality is a long-term

process.
• Inspection methods to achieve quality are
not effective. Defects should be
prevented.
• They support the practice of involving
suppliers in quality effort.
 DIFFERENCES

• Use of measurement

• Goal setting

• Supplier relationships

• Leadership commitment
 GENICHI TAGUCHI
• Taguchi loss function emphasis that departures
from the optimal point represent a loss to
society

• His loss function is based on variety reduction

• Minimal variability in everything is good

• Goal post philosophy of quality management is

not good
 GENICHI TAGUCHI
• He recommended the identification of the best
value within the specification limits

• He recognized a need for an experimental

approach that would extract maximum
meaningful information from a minimum of
tests
 MASAAKI IMAI

• Kaizen
– Continuous (ongoing) improvement
– Involving everybody
– With little or no investment

• Gemba kaizen
 QUALITY CULTURE
• Culture is the set of values, behaviours and norms
which make an organization tick
• Culture that values
– Openness
– Customer focus & orientation
– Attitude for continuous improvement
– Teamwork
– Systems approach
– Quantitative orientation
 QULAITY LEADERSHIP

• Creating a vision
• Commitment
• Initiating cultural change
• Strategic quality planning
• Recognition & rewards
• Empowerment
 QUALITY COSTS
• Process cost model
– Quality cost = cost of conformance + cost of
non conformance
• PAF Model
– Prevention costs
– Appraisal costs
– Failure costs
• Internal failure
• External failure
 QUALITY TOOLS

• Flow chart
• Check Sheet
• Pareto Diagram
• Fishbone diagram
• Scatter Diagram
• Histogram
• Control chart
 FLOW CHART
• A Flow chart is a pictorial representation of the steps in
a process. It helps to a detailed understanding of how a
particular process works. Flow charts are constructed
with a set of conventional easily recognized symbols.

• Benefits of using flow charts

– Promote process understanding
– Provide tool for training
– Identify problem areas and improvement
opportunities
– Depict customer-supplier relationships
 CHECKSHEET

• A Check sheet is a tool for collecting and

organizing data.
• With a check sheet data can be collected with
minimal effort and the raw data can be
converted into useful information.
• Clearly identify what is being observed.
• Keep the data collection process as easy as
possible.
• Group the data
 SCATTER DIAGRAM
• Used to display relationship between two variables (a
cause & an effect) based on data observations in an
attempt to establish correlation

• The graph is plotted using cause variable on the X axis

and the effect variable on the Y axis. There are several
patterns result from the plotting of the data
observations. Some of them are
– positive linear relationship
– weak positive linear relationship
– negative linear relationship
– weak negative linear relationship
– complex relationship
– no relationship
 HISTOGRAM

• A histogram is a graphical representation of a

frequency distribution. It enables to obtain information
like shape and dispersion (spread) of a set of data.

• How to construct a Histogram

– Decide on the Process measure
– Gather data
– Prepare a frequency table
– Draw the histogram
– Interpret the histogram as to its centering, variation, shape
and process capability.
 CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM

• This technique was pioneered by the Japanese

statistician Prof. Kaoru Ishikawa. Hence it is also called
Ishikawa diagram.
• Based on its shape it is called fishbone diagram also.
• The effect or the problem is written of the right hand
side and main trunk is drawn.
• Four to six main causes are considered to be
manageable and identified under the heading Man,
Machine, Materials, Methods and Environment.
• Under each main causes sub causes and identified and
are related to the main causes.
 PARETO DIAGRAM

• Pareto Analysis is based on the principle that most of

the effects are the result of a few causes.
• The concept was developed by Vilfredo Pareto, a
nineteenth century Italian economist. He observed that
80% of the national wealth was held by 20% of the
people.
• Today this idea is commonly called as the 80:20 rule or
Pareto Principle. This idea was later referred to as "
the vital few and the trivial many" by Joseph Juran.
• Thus Pareto Analysis helps to focus efforts on the
problems that offer greatest potential for improvement.
 PARETO DIAGRAM
• Decide the problem or effect that is to be analyzed
• Choose the causes of the problems that will be
monitored, compared and ranked
• Choose the most meaningful unit of measurement such
as frequency or cost
• Choose the time period for the study
• Gather necessary data on each cause category
• Compare the relative frequency or cost of each these
causes
• Take the cause that contribute the maximum for
improvement
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL

Inputs Transformation activities Outputs

Statistical Process control

Control charts
Attributes/Variables

Acceptance sampling
Attributes/Variables
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

A process is the transformation of a set of

inputs which can include materials, actions,
methods and operations into desired outputs in
the form of products, information, services or
generally results
A process has
a logical set of activities
discrete beginning and end
specific inputs and outputs
 SPC
• A process is the combined effect of
– the material used to make the product
– the machines used to make the product
– the methods employed to make the product
– the manpower used to make the product
– the environment in which the activity takes place
• A process may be analyzed by an examination of the
inputs and outputs. This will determine the action
necessary to improve quality
• If the process is right, the product is bound to be right
• Every process displays variation
 VARIATION
• Variation is the deviation from target
• Controlled variation
• Controlled variation is characterized by a
stable and consistent pattern over time. It is
the result of the inherent random influences of
the system
• When a process is displaying controlled
variation it can do no better than it is doing in
its present state
• Deming: Common causes
• Shewhart: Unassignable or chance or random
causes
 VARIATION

• Uncontrolled variation
• Uncontrolled variation is characterized by a
pattern of variation that changes over time to
a state where there is no longer stability and it
is impossible to predict what process is going to
do.
• Deming: Special causes
• Shewhart: Assignable causes
 VARIATION

• Defective: is a component or item which is

unacceptable because it does not match up to
requirements
Defect: is the flaw or non-conformity which
caused a component to be rejected
A defective can have many defects present in it.
To be adjudged defective a component must
have at least one defect
 CONTROL CHART

• Variable data
– X bar and R Chart

• Attribute data
– np chart and p chart for defectives
– U chart and c chart for defects
CONTROL CHART

Upper Control Limit

Central Line
Lower Control limit
 CONTROL CHART

• X bar chart
– Central line is X bar bar
– Upper control limit is X bar bar + A2 R bar
– Lower control limit is X bar bar – A2 R bar
• R Chart
– Central line is R bar
– Upper control Limit is D4 R bar
– Lower Control Limit is D3 R bar
A2, D4 & D3 depends on sample size n
 CONTROL CHART

• Defectives
• np chart when the sample size is constant
– Central line is n x p bar
– UCL/LCL is (n p bar) + 3 npbar(1-p bar)
• P chart when sample size varies
– Central line is p bar
– UCL/LCL is p bar + 3 pbar(1-pbar)
3
 CONTROL CHART

• Defects: c chart (when sample size is constant)

– Central line is c bar
– UCL/LCL is c bar + 3 c bar

• Defects: u chart (when sample size is not constant)

– Central line is u bar
– UCL/LCL is u bar + 3 u bar
n
 PROCESS CAPABILITY

• The extent to which a stable process is able to

meet specifications
• Process indices
USL- LSL
Cp = 6 sigma

Cpk = min (Cpu, Cpl)

USL- u u-LSL
Cpu = 3 sigma Cpl= 3 sigma
 ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING

• When the quantity to be inspected is huge a

sample from the lot is taken and based on the
sample inspection result a decision to accept or
reject the entire lot is taken. This is is called
acceptance sampling
• Single sampling plan
• Double sampling plan
• Multiple sampling plan
 ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING

• Producer’s risk (Alpha risk)

– Possible rejection of a lot that ought to be accepted
• Consumer’s risk (Beta risk)
– Possible acceptance of a lot that ought to be rejected
• Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)
– Maximum proportion of defectives that a consumer finds
definitely acceptable
• Lot Tolerance Percent defectives (LTPD)
– The proportion of defectives that the consumer finds definitely
unacceptable
 ISO 9000
• ISO is the International Organization for
standardization headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland.
• "ISO" is not an acronym.
• ISO is a non-governmental organization started
its operation in 1947.
• The mission of ISO is to promote the
development of standardization and related
activities in the world with a view to facilitating
the international exchange of goods and
services and to developing cooperation in the
spheres of intellectual, scientific, technical and
economic activity.
 ISO 9000

• ISO 9000 is a Quality Management System

• Voluntary certification
• Not a product certification
• Not a life time certification
• Revised every 5 years. Latest is ISO 9000:2000
• ISO has no authority to enforce
implementation of standards
 ISO 9000:2000

• Based on 8 quality management principles

• Customer focus
• Leadership
• Involvement of people
• Process approach
• System approach to management
• Continual improvement
• Factual approach to decision making
• Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
 ISO 9000:2000

• ISO 9000 series

• ISO 9000:2000 Fundamentals and
vocabulary
• ISO 9001:2000 QMS Requirements
• ISO 9004:2000 QMS guidelines for
performance improvement
 ISO 9000

• Structure of ISO 9001: 2000

• Section 4 – Quality management system
• Section 5 – Management responsibility
• Section 6 – Resource Management
• Section 7 -- Product realization
• Section 8 – Measurement , Analysis and
improvement
 QMS DOCUMENTATION

• Quality Policy
• Quality Objectives
• QMS Procedures
• Work Instructions
• Records
 Quality Audit

• To check practice against procedure

• To document any non Conformity
• First party audit (Internal audit)
• Second party audit
• Third party audit
• Adequacy audit
• Compliance audit
• Surveillance audit
 QUALITY AUDIT

• Correction

• Corrective action

• Preventive action
 TQMEX PILLARS

• .
 TQMEX MODEL

•
 BPR

The fundamental rethinking and

radical redesign of business
process to achieve dramatic
improvements in critical
contemporary measures such as
cost, quality service and speed.
 5 STEP APPROACH TO BPR
• Develop the business vision and process
objective
• Identify the process to be redesigned
• Understand and measure the existing
process
• Identify IT levers
• Design and build a prototype of the new
process
 JIT

• Manufacturing Philosophy
• Originated in Toyota in 1950s
• Elimination of waste
• Producing the required items at the
required quality in the right
quantities at the right time
 JIT

• People
– Involvement
– Empowerment
– Mutual trust
– teamwork
– Flexible workforce (Multiskilling)
 JIT

• Quality
– Jidoka (quality at the source)
– Kaizen
– Poka yoke (mistake proofing)
– PDCA
– SPC
 JIT

• Pull system
• Single piece flow
• Autonomation
• TPM
• SMED
 JIT (SOURCES OF WASTE)

• Overproduction
• Waiting
• Transportation/movement
• Processing
• Inventory
• defects
 KANBAN

• Visual record or signboard

• Communication & production
control tool
• parts-movement system that
depends on cards and boxes to take
parts from one work station to
another on a production line
 KANBAN

• The transport Kanban contains

information from where the
part/component originated and its
destination
• The production Kanban, on the other
hand, outlines to what extent and when
work has to be accomplished by a specific
station on the production line
 QFD
• QFD is a tool used to translate customer
requirements to engineering
I
specifications.
• It is very powerful as it incorporates the
voice of the customer in the designs
 QFD
5. Roof

3. Technical
Requirements
1. Customer
requirements

4. Inter-
relationships

6. Targets
 QFD
• Six Important activities
• 1- Customer requirements
– Collect customer requirements in their
own words
• 2- Planning matrix
– Quantifies the customer requirements,
prioritizes and evaluates their
perceptions of the performance of the
existing products
 QFD
• 3 - Technical requirements
– Describes the product in terms of
measurable characteristics of the
product that are related to meet the
specified customer requirements
• 4 – Interrelationships
– Translates the requirements as
expressed by the customer into
technical characteristics of the product
 QFD
• 5 – Roof
– Is used to identify where the technical
requirements that characterizes the
product, support or impede one
another
• 6 – Targets
– Consists of technical priorities,
competitive benchmarking and targets