Sampling methods in research

1
Presented by Dilara Toplu
2 Outline

1. Introduction & Definitions

2. Two Main Categories of Sampling
A. Random Sampling Methods
B. Nonrandom Sampling Methods
3. Sample Size
4. External Validity (Generalizability)
3 1. Introduction & Definitions

 What is a sample?
 A sample is a subset of the population.
 One of the most important steps in the research process is the
selection of the sample of individuals who will participate (be
observed or questioned).
 Sampling refers to process of selecting these individuals.
 What is a population?
 Why researchers often select a sample to study?
4 1.Introduction & Definitions

Connection between population

and sample
 A sample in a research study is the group
on which information is obtained.
 The larger group to which one hopes to
apply the results is called the population.
 In some instances the sample and
population may be identical.
Example: A researcher is interested in
studying the effects of diet on the attention
span of third-grade students in a large city.
There are 1,500 third-grade students in this
city. The researcher selects 150 of these third-
graders, 30 each in five different schools, as a
sample of study.
5 1.Introduction & Definitions

Defining the population

 The first task in selecting a sample is to define the population of interest.
 In what group, exactly, is the researcher interested?
 To whom does he or she want the results of the study to apply?
 The population is the group to whom the researcher would like to generalize the
results of the study.
Examples:
 All high school principals in the United States.
 All elementary school counselors in the state of Ankara.
 If this class was a sample, what would your population be?
 In which situation you would be a population?
 Can we choose the population without any certain characteristic or set of
characteristics?
 6
1.Introduction & Definitions

Target versus accessible

populations

 What is the differences

between target and
accessible population?
7 1.Introduction & Definitions

 Target Population: This refers to the actual population to which a researcher

would really like to generalize.
 Accessible Population: This is the population to which a researcher is able
to generalize.
 Sample: This is the representative group which the researchers chooses to
make generalizations from.
8 1.Introduction & Definitions

 Consider these examples:

Research problem to be investigated: The effects of computer-assisted
instruction on the reading achievement of first- and second-graders in Turkey.
Target population: All first- and second-grade children in Turkey.
Accessible population: All first- and second grade children in TED elementary
school in İstanbul, Turkey.
Sample: Ten percent of the first- and second grade children in the TED in
Istanbul, Turkey.
 Can you give your own example?
1.Introduction
9 & Definitions

 In summary, when information is required

about a large group of people it may not
be possible to collect data from
everyone, so we pick a sample.
 The sample should be large enough to
make the results generalizable and
representative of the whole group.
 For example, it is is common to hear
statements such as:
“Most male students do not like Biology.”
“Most school superintendents are men.”
10 2. Two Main Types of Sampling
11
2. Two Main Categories of Sampling
Let’s guess which one is random or not?
12 2. Two Main Categories of Sampling

 Random sampling: Everyone in the population has an equal

chance of being chosen to participate in sample.

 Non-Random (Purposive) sampling: Not all members of a

population have the chance of being chosen. Sometimes certain
individuals are chosen on purpose.
13 A. Random Sampling Methods

1. Simple Random Sampling

 In this technique, each and every member of
the population has an equal chance of being
selected as a subject.
 The entire process of sampling is done in a
single step with each subject selected
independently of the other members of the
population.

”We interview a sample of 41 mothers of eight

graders from one middle school. These mothers
were randomly selected from a list of 129 mothers
provided by the principal of the school.” (Baker,
D.,& Stevenson, D., 1986, p. 157)
14 A. Random Sampling Methods

1. Simple Random Sampling

 Imagine the people
illustrated in the image
above are game
pieces. Place the 12
game pieces in a bowl
and (again, without
looking) choose 3.
Simple random sampling of a sample
This is simple random “n” of 3 from a population “N” of 12.
sampling. Image: Dan Kernler |Wikimedia
Commons
15 A. Random Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling
Advantages:
 The large enough in size, the more likely it is representative of the
population.
 The method is simple to use.
 It is totally free from bias and prejudice.
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to perform.
 Sub-groups may not be represented.

 Is it easy to apply this method?

 16 A. Random Sampling Methods

2. Stratified Random Sampling

Draw a sample from each stratum

 A technique is a sample selected so that

certain characteristics are represented in
the sample in the same proportion as
they occur in the population.
 When to use?
17 A. Random Sampling
Methods

2. Stratified Random
Sampling
 Stratified random sampling is
illustrated in figure. In this example
the population is divided first into
three different age groups, then by
gender. Once the groups are
stratified by gender, random
samples are selected from each of
six subgroups.
18 A. Random Sampling Methods

2. Stratified Random Sampling

Advantages:
 Subgroups – like gender, socioeconomic status, etc. will be equally
represented in the sample, it increases the representativeness of the
sample if the sample is not very large.
Disadvantages:
 It takes more time and effort.
A. Random Sampling
19
Methods

3. Cluster Random Sampling

A technique is one obtained

by using groups as the
sampling unit rather than
individuals.
 What is your example?

This example shows clusters of individuals separated by their

street/avenue. Joe then chooses one street/avenue to do
his survey. This is just one example of a cluster sampling.
 A. Random Sampling Methods
20
3. Cluster Random Sampling

Advantages:
 It can be used when it is difficult or
impossible to select a random sample of
individuals.
 It is often far easier to implement in
schools.
 It is frequently less time-consuming.
Disadvantages:
 Might not represent the entire population
 Conclusions often drawn after studying
only one cluster.
21 A. Random Sampling Methods

4. Two-stage Random Sampling

 In this technique, combining cluster random sampling with individual
random sampling is accomplished by two-stage random sampling.
 It selects groups randomly and then chooses individuals randomly from
these groups.
Advantages:
 Less time-consuming and more representative than cluster random
sampling.
Disadvantages:
 Takes more work/organization on the part of the researcher.
22 A. Random Sampling Methods

When random sampling is not feasible;

 Researchers should describe the sample in detail, so that others can work
on them.
 Researchers can use replication; the researcher repeats the study using
different groups of subjects in different situations.
 Random samples have not been used in education because of two
reasons: educational researchers are not aware of the hazards of
generalization without a random sample; and it is not feasible for many
researchers to invest money and time to obtain a random sample.
23  B. Nonrandom Sampling Methods

What is non-random sampling methods?

1. Systematic Sampling
 This technique is obtained by selecting every nth name in
a population.
 The orijinal pattern can be selected randomly.
 It basically becomes simple random sampling if the
population list is also randomly ordered.
24
B. Nonrandom Sampling
Methods

1. Systematic Sampling
 For example, in a population list of
5000 names, to select a sample of
500, a researcher would select every
tenth name on the list until reaching
a total of 500 names.
 This example shows a neighborhood
that will be systematically sampled.
First we choose a starting point. Then
we systematically choose every third
house to survey.
25

Advantages: Disadvantage:

B.
Nonrandom Might become
Sampling This is a simpler and
quicker method to
biased and under
representative if the
Methods select a sample. population list is
ordered in a pattern.

1.
Systematic
Sampling
 B. Nonrandom Sampling
26 Methods

2. Convenience Sampling

 A convenience sample is any group

of individuals who conveniently
available for study.
 Replication of the study is always
encouraged to diminish the
possibility of bias.
 This example shows Joe wanting to
survey his friends but is
inconvenienced by the distance he
would have to travel to get a good
sample. He instead samples the
friends closest to him.
 B. Nonrandom Sampling
27 Methods

2. Convenience Sampling

Advantage:
 It is convenience.
Disadvantage:
 The sample will quite likely be
biased.
 These samples cannot be
considered representative of any
population.
 It needs to be repeated in order to
have results be meaningful
(replication).
28 B. Nonrandom Sampling
Methods
3. Purposive Sampling

 In this technique, researchers use

their judgment to select the
individuals for the specific purpose
of the study, using their own
knowledge of the individuals.
Advantage:
 It convenient for educational
research.
Disadvantage:
 The researcher’s judgment might be
in error or even biased.
Sample
29 or
Census?
 Samples look at only part of
the population.
 A census tries to look at the
entire population.
30
3. Sample Size

 It depends on the population.

 The authors suggest the following sample sizes by research types:
 Descriptive studies: at least 100.
 Correlational studies: at least 50.
 Experimental and causal-comparative studies: at least 30.
 Qualitative studies: between 1 and 20.
31
4. External Validity: Generalizing From a
Sample

 The main purpose of science is generalization.

 External validity refers to the extent that the results of a study can be
generalized from a sample to a population.
 Population generalizability refers to the extent to which the results of a
study can be generalized to the intented population.
 Ecological generalizability refers to the extent to which the results of a
study can be generalized to conditions or settings other than those that
prevailed in a particular study.
 4.32External Validity:
Generalizing From a
Sample
 Ecological generalizability
refers to the extent to which
the results of a study can be
generalized to conditions or
settings other than those in
the current study.
 For example: When you
conduct a study in an
urban school you cannot
apply these results to a rural
schools.

32
33
34
Sampling methods in research

Let’s watch a video!

A short video about the main sampling types:
 https://youtu.be/be9e-Q-jC-0
35 Sampling methods in research

 A concern for generalization dominates quantitative research. For generalizability and

repeatability, identification of sample size is essential. The present study investigates 90 qualitative
master’s theses submitted for the Primary and Secondary School Science and Mathematics
Education Departments, Mathematic Education Discipline in 10 universities in Turkey between
1996 and 2007, in terms of “Population and Sample” using document analysis. Coding is used to
analyze the data and results are presented by using descriptive statistics. Most of the theses were
found to include a few lines of information on population and sample, and a few presented the
characteristics of the sample in detailed tables, though without any information on the selection
criteria were given. Randomization in random sampling, which is frequently used, was usually
limited to unbiased assignment of two classes out of four within a school. No attention was paid
to the appropriateness of the sample size and to the analysis techniques employed. Effect size
was calculated in only one dissertation, but was not taken into account in the identification of
the sample size. Normality tests also indicated some challenges. The effects of sample size on
reliability assessment were not taken into account.
Delice, A. (2010). The Sampling Issues in Quantitative Research. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 10(4),
2001-2018.