Chapter 11: Introduction to

Genetics
 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES TITLE: Meiosis
Why Meiosis? Mitosis produces cells with
exactly the same amount of
chromosomes as the original cell.
If this was the only means of
cell division, offspring would
end up with twice as many
chromosomes as the parents.

Egg (14 chrom.) + Sperm (14 chrom) Offspring (28 chrom)

F1 Egg (28) + F1 Sperm (28) F2 Offspring (56)

 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES
TITLE: Meiosis
EX: Haploid: cell with one of each
kind of chromosome (n)
Organisms produce
gametes that are
haploid…egg and sperm
Diploid: cell with two of each
kind of chromosome (2n)
EX:
Body cells (somatic cells) of
animals/plants have
chromosomes that occur in
pairs…one from each parent
How do organisms To produce haploid gametes, organisms
under go meiosis
produce haploid
gametes?
 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES
TITLE: Meiosis
Meiosis has 2 separate
Meiosis I divisions…Meiosis I and Meiosis II
= 2n
Meiosis I begins with a Diploid
cell…2n has 46 chromosomes
Meiosis II finishes with 4 Haploid
cells (1n)
These 4 Haploid cells are
Gametes (Egg or Sperm)

Meiosis II
= 1n
 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES
TITLE: Meiosis
How many chromosomes
•With Fertilization, Sperm (23) and Egg
does a human sperm
contain? (23).. Haploid…come together to
produce a Zygote (46)..Diploid
-23 chromosomes
How many chromosomes
does a human egg contain?
-23 chromosomes
What happens during Sexual This pattern of reproduction that
Reproduction? involves the combining (fusion) of
-Haploid gametes (egg and haploid gametes is called Sexual
sperm) combine. Reproduction
How many chromosomes
does a human skin cell
contain?
-46 (diploid)
 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES
TITLE: Meiosis
Homologous Chromosomes:
Where do you find Paired chromosomes, each with
homologous genes for the same traits. These
chromosomes? exist in Diploid cells and are what
determine how an individual looks
-in Diploid Cells
(traits)
-Ex:

Mom’s chromosomes
for hair color
Dad’s
chromosomes
for hair color
Phases of Meiosis
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
What happens •Interphase
within the cell
DNA
during Interphase
of Meiosis? Replication
-DNA is replicated.
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of a TETRAD •Prophase I
Each pair of homologous
chromosomes come together
to form a four-part structure
called a Tetrad

Example of CROSSING OVER - Crossing Over can occur

 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Metaphase I
•Metaphase I
In Meiosis I, the
Tetrad of
homologous
chromosomes lines
up down the middle

What lines up down the middle of the

cell during Metaphase I of Meiosis?
-Homologous pairs
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Anaphase I •Anaphase I
Spindle fibers
pull
homologous
chromosomes
toward
What gets separated during opposite ends
Anaphase I of Meiosis? of the cell
-Homologous pairs
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Telophase I
•Telophase I
- the cells begin to
separate into two cells.

At the end of
Are the two cells identical? Meiosis I the two
new cells are
-No, they have different sets of Haploid and have
chromosomes different sets of
chromosomes
Meiosis I
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Prophase II •Prophase II
Nuclear Membrane
breaks down,
chromosomes
condense

Meiosis II is
Do chromosomes replicate identical to Mitosis
during Prophase II of Meiosis?
-NO!
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Metaphase II
•Metaphase II
Chromosomes
(sister
chromatids)
line up down
the center of
the cell
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Anaphase II
• Anaphase II

What gets separated during - Sister chromatids

Anaphase II of Meiosis? separate towards
-Sister chromatids
opposite ends of each
cell
 Questions/ Phases of
TITLE:
Examples Meiosis
Example of Telophase II
•Telophase II
4 A nuclear membrane
forms around each set
of chromosomes and
cytokinesis occurs,
At the end of Telophase II of producing four
How II,
Meiosis many
howand what type of
many daughter cells
cells are produced
chromosomes at the
are found end
within
of daughter
each Cytokinesis?
cell? •Produces 4 Haploid Cells
- 4chromosome
-One Haploid cellsfrom
that are
each that are genetically
geneticallypair
homologous different
from Meiosis I different
Meiosis II
 Examples of Differences
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
• 2 genetically • 4 genetically
identical daughter different cells
cells • Haploid (23)
• Diploid (46) chromosomes
chromosomes • Gametes (eggs)
• Somatic cells (sperm)
 Questions/
TITLE: Genetic Variation
Examples
Why are offspring not Meiosis “shuffles”
identical to their parents/why chromosomes = offspring
does genetic variation exist? are not identical to the
-Because Meiosis randomly parents
shuffles
What chromosomes
principle describes how - Principle of Independent
genes for different traits Assortment: genes for
separate independently during different traits separate
Meiosis? INDEPENDENTLY during
HOW do genes for different meiosis, as long as they are
traitsof
- Principle separate
Independent
on- separate chromosomes
independently?
Assortment
homologous pairs line up
-By homologous
completely random during
chromosomes lining up
Metaphase I…
randomly during meiosis
 Questions/
TITLE: Genetic Variation
Examples
Example of Crossing Over Crossing Over -an exchange
of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes
Occurs randomly anywhere
on the chromosome.
**What does crossing over
and independent assortment
create?**
-Genetic Variation/offspring
that are different from their Genetic Recombination=
How does genetic reassortment of chromosomes and
parents occur?
recombination genetic information they carry,
-By independent either by crossing over or
segregation/assortment or independent segregation of
homologous chromosomes
crossing over
 Questions/
Examples
What occurs when both
chromosomes from a
homologous pair are pulled
to the same pole of the cell?
-Nondisjunction/ extra or
missing chromosome
What is one example of
Nondisjunction?
-Trisomy: having an extra
chromosome
Genetic
Title: PROBLEMS
Nondisjunction: When
chromosomes fail to separate
correctly during meiosis
Both chromosomes from a
homologous pair move to
the same pole of the cell
Trisomy: (nondisjunction)
where a zygote has an extra
chromosome
-Ex: Trisomy 21
 Questions/
Examples
What occurs when a zygote is
missing one chromosome?
-Monosomy
Do most organisms that are
missing a chromosome
survive?
-No
What is one example of
Monosomy where organisms
can survive?
- Turner Syndrome: having
only one X chromosome
Title:Genetic Problems
Monosomy: (nondisjuction) when
the zygote is missing one
chromosome
In humans, most
zygotes/organisms with
monosomy do not survive
Ex: (non lethal) Turner
Syndrome= Human females
with only one X
chromosome
 Questions/
Title:Genetic Problems
Examples
What happens when Nondisjuction of homologous
homologous chromosomes do chromosomes
not separate? - Complete Diploid set of chromosomes
is passed to gamete
-Offspring has more than two
sets of chromosomes (3 sets) - Offspring has 3 sets of that
chromosome after fertilization
When an organism has 3 sets
What does polyploidy
of chromosomes is this - Called: Triploid
whatusually
cause in called?
animals? death -Polyploids: Organisms with more than 2
Example of- -Triploidy
Polyploidy
Death in sets of chromosomes
plants
- Rare in animals and usually causes
death
- Occurs frequently in plants
Flowers/fruits are larger and usually
healthier
 Questions/ Title: Gene Linkage
Examples

Example of Gene Linkage • Genes close on a chromosome

Blonde hair and blue eyes, are less likely to separate
fruit fly with reddish-orange – These genes are usually inherited
eyes and miniature wings together
– It is the chromosomes that
separate independently not genes
When are genes less likely to
separate ?
-When they are close together
on a chromosome.
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: The Work of
EXAMPLES
Gregor Mendel

What is the study of • Genetics: study of Heredity

heredity?
• Heredity: the passing of
characteristics from parents to
offspring.
Ex of Traits:
• Traits: Inherited characteristics.
-hair color
-eye color
-height

http://www.writing.ucsb.edu/faculty/samuels/dna.jpg
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: The Work of
EXAMPLES
Gregor Mendel

What Austrian monk • Gregor Mendel (1822-1884):

was curious about – An Austrian monk
the passing of traits
– Wanted to know how traits
so he studied pea
were passed from parent to
plants?
child.
– Studied pea plants
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: The Work of
EXAMPLES
Gregor Mendel

What type of pea plants • Started with pea plants that

did Mendel choose for only produced tall offspring
his first cross?
and pea plants that only
produced short offspring.
– Mated short plants with
tall plants.
– All the offspring were
tall!!

• What was going on???

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2001_gbio/folder_structure/ge/m2/s2/assets/images/gem2s2_1.jpg
QUESTIONS/ TITLE: The Work of
EXAMPLES
Gregor Mendel

Example: (Background info. on cross terminology)

• Parental generation = P1
generation

• First generation of offspring =

F1 generation

• Second generation of offspring =

F2 generation
(F means Filial)
http://www.fastplants.org/graphics/genetics/parent_F2.jpg
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: The Work of
EXAMPLES
Gregor Mendel

Draw a picture • He let the new tall offspring

representing what (F1 plants) self-pollinate and
happened. observed the second generation
(F2 Plants).

What was the result • The resulting F2 plants were tall

of the F1 plants self ¾ of the time, and short ¼ of the
pollinating? time!

http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/problem_sets/monohybrid_cross/graphics/02Q.gif
SUMMARY OF WHAT MENDLE DID/SAW

P1 TT x tt Forced Mating Tall x Short

 

F1 All Tt Self-pollinate All Tall

 
F2 TT Tt Tt tt Count 3 Tall:1 Short
 Example of Mendel letting the F1 generation self-pollinate

Tall Short Tall Tall Tall Tall Tall Short

 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: The Work of
EXAMPLES
Gregor Mendel

 1st: Mendel Determined: Trait

What did Mendel conclude inheritance is determined by
about trait inheritance? factors that are passed from
generation to generation
• Genes: Factors that determine
traits
Some Examples of
Alleles
–Ex. Gene = height, the • Alleles: A particular form of a
allele could be tall or gene, one comes from the
short. mother, one from the father.
–Gene = eye color, the
allele could be light or
dark. http://ghs.gresham.k12.or.us/science/ps/sci/soph/genetics/alleles.gif
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Rule of Dominance
EXAMPLES

If there are two alleles, – A dominant allele is always

and only one observed expressed.
trait, which allele is – A recessive allele
dominant? • not expressed when in the presence
of a dominant allele.
• is expressed when paired with
another recessive allele.
When is a recessive allele
seen/expressed?

http://wellspring.isinj.com/bio/principlesI/Images/segregation.jpg
 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES
Example of alleles and the traits
they show: How many Tall plants
are there, how many short?
TITLE: Rule of Dominance
(Don’t write this down, just listen): Remember,
Mendel said there were two alleles, one from
the female and one from the male for every
trait, or gene- these get passed from generation
to generation.
• For the pea height gene, the
allele T=Tall and the allele
t=Short.
• T = dominant to t = recessive
(Know because most of the plants
http://web.grcc.edu/biosci/revhand/genetic/~wp0002.jpg
were tall)
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Rule of Dominance
EXAMPLES

• If T is dominant, then:
Write an example of a –TT=Tall, Tt=Tall, and tt=Short.
genotype.
• The allele combo/gene combo:
Write an example of a
phenotype. (TT, Tt, or tt): = genotype of
the trait.
•Phenotype: The expression of the
gene/the way you look.
•Blue eyes, straight hair, smooth pea,
wrinkled pea are all phenotypes.

http://web.grcc.edu/biosci/revhand/genetic/~wp0002.jpg
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: LAW OF
EXAMPLES SEGREGATION
(Remember: All plants/animals have two alleles for each
gene: different alleles = two different types of gametes: pair
randomly during fertilization (independent assortment!))
Example: F1 (Tt) X F1 (Tt)  Segregation = Separation
of alleles during gamete
F2: TT Tt Tt tt
formation
Each F1 has a tall and short Segregation +
allele (for the gene for height) Independent assortment =
that it can pass on to its
offspring (F2) four possible
combinations of
alleles.
What is the genotypic
ratio? Phenotypic ratio?
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Punnett Squares
EXAMPLES

Male
-A diagram used to
T T
show what might result
from a genetic cross
Tt Tt --Used to
t
Female

predict/compare
genetic variations
t

Tt Tt
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Punnett Squares
EXAMPLES

How many alleles does • Monohybrid cross= one

each parent donate in a gene
monohybrid cross?
– Each parent donates
one allele to the
offspring
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Punnett Squares
EXAMPLES

• Homozygous: Two of the

Homozygous Ex. TT or tt.
same allele for a trait.

Heterozygous Ex. Tt. • Heterozygous: Two

different alleles for one trait.

•TT is homozygous dominant.

•tt is homozygous recessive.
•Tt is heterozygous.
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Dihybrid Crosses
EXAMPLES

•So far we have only looked at single or lone traits like height.
–The crossing of these plants when only looking at one gene or
trait is called a monohybrid cross.
•What would happen if we looked at two traits and their alleles at
the same time?
Crossing 2 traits at the same
time:
– This is called a dihybrid
How many traits are
cross.
crossed in a dihybrid
cross? – Ex. Wrinkled and yellow
peas or round and green
peas
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Dihybrid Crosses
EXAMPLES

•Ex. Wrinkled and green • Each parent donates

peas or round and yellow two alleles to the
peas offspring
 Phenotypes – Dihybrid Cross

P1 Round Yellow x Wrinkled Green

F1 All Round and Yellow

F2 Round Yellow (9): Round Green

(3): Wrinkled Yellow (3): Wrinkled
Green (1)
4 Possibilities

http://campus.queens.edu/faculty/jannr/Genetics/images/dihybridtestcross.gif
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Incomplete Dominance
EXAMPLES

•Example: Cross red (RR) • One allele is not completely

flower + white (WW) dominant over the other.
flower = pink (RW)
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Codominance
EXAMPLES

• Both alleles contribute to the

• Example: A red cow phenotype
crossed with a white
cow results red cows
with white blotches.
 QUESTIONS/ TITLE: Multiple Alleles
EXAMPLES

• Example: various hair • When genes have

colors in mice. more than 2 alleles
that contribute to the
phenotype.
• The result = various
expressions of the
gene.