Personality

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Introduction to Personality
Personality
Trait Perspectives on Personality
Social-Cognitive Perspectives on Personality
Psychodynamic Perspectives on Personality
Humanistic Perspectives on Personality
Personality
Assessing Personality
Personality
(continued)
Personality
Personality > Introduction to Personality
Introduction to Personality
• Defining Personality
• Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
• Influences of Culture and Gender on Personality
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/introduction-to-personality-76/
Personality > Trait Perspectives on Personality
Trait Perspectives on Personality

• Allport's, Cattell's, and Eysenck's Trait Theories of Personality
• The Five-Factor Model
• General Strengths and Limitations of Trait Perspectives
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/trait-perspectives-on-personality-79/
Personality > Social-Cognitive Perspectives on Personality
Social-Cognitive Perspectives on Personality

• Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Model of Personality and the Person-
Situation Debate
• Bandura's and Rotter's Social-Cognitive Theories of Personality
• Criticisms of the Social-Cognitive Pespective on Personality
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/social-cognitive-perspectives-on-personality-81/
Personality > Psychodynamic Perspectives on Personality
Psychodynamic Perspectives on Personality

• Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
• Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/psychodynamic-perspectives-on-personality-77/
Personality > Humanistic Perspectives on Personality
Humanistic Perspectives on Personality

• Maslow's Humanistic Theory of Personality
• Rogers' Humanistic Theory of Personality
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/humanistic-perspectives-on-personality-78/
Personality > Assessing Personality
Assessing Personality
• Overview of Personality Assessment
• Validity and Reliability of Personality Assessments
• Personality Testing in the Workplace
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/personality-16/assessing-personality-84/
Appendix
Personality
Key terms
• aggregate A mass, assemblage, or sum of particulars; something consisting of elements but considered as a whole.
• apperception The mind's perception of itself as the subject or actor in its own states, unifying past and present experiences;
self-consciousness; perception that reflects upon itself.
• aptitude Natural ability to acquire knowledge or skill.
• clinical Of or pertaining to a medical facility.
• congruity An instance or point of agreement or correspondence between the ideal self and the real self in Rogers' humanistic
personality theory.
• culture The beliefs, values, behavior and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.
• delayed gratification The act of denying one's self an immediate reward in return for a better reward in the future.
• Factor analysis A statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially
lower number of unobserved variables called factors.
• Factor analysis A statistical method used to describe variability among observed correlated variables in terms of one or more
unobserved variables.
• Factor analysis A statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially
lower number of unobserved variables.
• gender The socio-cultural phenomenon of the division of people into various categories according to their biological sex, with
each having associated roles, clothing, stereotypes, etc.; those with male sex characteristics are perceived as "boys" and
"men", while those with female sex characteristics are perceived as "girls" and "women. "
• heritability The proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics.
Personality
• holistic Relating to the whole instead of a separation into parts.

• humanistic psychology A psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to
psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and
creativity.
• humanistic psychology A psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to
psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and
creativity.
• humor In an old usage, one of four fluids that were believed to control the health and mood of the human body.
• introspective Examining one's own perceptions and sensory experiences; contemplative or thoughtful about oneself.
• learned helplessness The condition of a human or animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though
there are opportunities for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining positive rewards.
• locus of control The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them; can be either internal or
external.
• locus of control The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them; can be either internal or
external.
• neurosis A mental disorder marked by anxiety or fear; less severe than psychosis because it does not involve detachment from
reality (e.g., hallucination).
• neuroticism A personality trait manifested by characteristics of anxiety, moodiness, worry, envy, and jealousy.
• normative Of or pertaining to a standard; attempting to establish or prescribe a standard.
• norms That which is regarded as normal or typical; a rule that is enforced by members of a community.
Personality
• observer bias A form of reactivity in which an observer's/researcher's cognitive bias causes them to unconsciously influence the
person(s) being observed/participants of an experiment.
• operant A class of behavior that produces consequences by acting upon the environment.
• pathology Any deviation from a healthy or normal condition; abnormality.
• personality signature An individual's pattern of situation-behavior reactions proposed by Walter Mischel to predict behavior.
• phenomenal field Our subjective reality, all that we are aware of, including objects and people as well as our behaviors,
thoughts, images, and ideas.
• projective measure A personality test that is used to identify underlying personality traits; responses are highly subjective.
• psychodynamic Relating to the approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces
underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how these might be related to early experiences.
• psychodynamic An approach to psychology that emphasizes the systematic study of the unconscious psychological forces that
underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how these might relate to early experience.
• psychometric The design of psychological tests to measure intelligence, aptitude, and personality, and the analysis and
interpretation of their results.
• psychosexual Of or relating to both psychological and sexual aspects.
• reliability The overall consistency of a measure; its ability to produce similar results under consistent conditions.
• reliability The overall consistency of a measure; the likelihood that a measure can be repeated.
Personality
• self-actualization According to humanistic theory, the realizing of one's full potential; can include creative expression, quest for
spiritual enlightenment, pursuit of knowledge, or the desire to give to society.
• self-efficacy The term used to describe how one judges one's own competence to complete tasks and reach goals.
• self-efficacy The term used to describe how one judges one's own competence to complete tasks and reach goals.
• social cognitive theory A theory of personality that emphasizes cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging.
• social learning theory A theory that assumes people learn certain behaviors through observing and imitating the behaviors of
others, and then being rewarded or punished for behaving that way.
• temperament A person's normal manner of thinking, behaving, or reacting.
• trait An identifying characteristic, habit, or trend.
• trait An identifying characteristic, habit, or trend.
• trait An identifying characteristic, habit or trend.
• transcendence Superior excellence; supereminence.
• validity A quality of a measurement indicating the degree to which the measure reflects the underlying construct; whether it
measures what it purports to measure.
• validity The extent to which a concept, conclusion, or measurement is well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real
world.
Personality
• validity The extent to which a concept, conclusion, or measurement is well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real
world.
Personality
Cognitive-Affective Model of Personality

Mischel's research in personality led him to develop the cognitive-affective model, which argues that an individual's behavior, rather than simply being a
result of traits, is fundamentally dependent on situational cues—the needs of a given situation. As shown in this diagram, features of situations,
behaviors, behavior generation processes, and encoding processes are all interconnected.
Wikimedia. "Cognitive-Affective." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cognitive-Affective.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
The id, ego, and superego

According to Freud's structural model, the personality is divided into the id, ego, and superego. On this diagram, the smaller portion above the water
signifies the conscious mind, while the much larger portion below the water illustrates the unconscious mind.
OpenStax CNX. "CNX Psychology, Psychology. July 23, 2015." CC BY 4.0 http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:61/Psychology
View on Boundless.com
Personality
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow developed a human hierarchy of needs that is conceptualized as a pyramid to represent how people move from one level of needs to
another. First physiological needs must be met before safety needs, then the need for love and belonging, then esteem, and finally self-actualization.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Maslow's_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal determinism, in which our behavior, cognitive processes, and situational context all influence each other.
Personality
The Big Five Personality Traits

In the five factor model, each person has five traits (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) which are scored on a
continuum from high to low. In the center column, notice that the first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN.
Personality
Reciprocal determinism
Critics of social-cognitive theory argue that the theory does not provide a full explanation of how social cognition, behavior, environment, and personality
are related (known as "reciprocal determinism").
Personality
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud advanced a psychodynamic view of human personality that implicated the id, ego, and superego as the main determinants of individual
differences in personality.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Limitations of the Trait Theories

While trait theories provide information about which traits an individual has and how they may behave, they do not explain why they will behave this way.
Wikimedia. "Retos-twins.jpg." CC BY-SA 2.0 Germany https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Retos-twins.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Self-report measure
Self-report measures typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Personality
Personality Assessments
Employers often use personality tests in their hiring processes in order to identify candidates they believe are a "better fit" for the job.
OpenStax CNX. "CNX Psychology, Psychology. August 4, 2015." CC BY 4.0 http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-
2cefd46e68cc@4.100:68/Psychology View on Boundless.com
Personality
Sigmund Freud
Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, which argued that personality is formed through conflicts among three
fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Influence of gender roles on personality expression

Gender roles can determine which traits are considered positive or desirable. These traits vary from culture to culture.
Wikimedia. "Kvinde-emancipation." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kvinde-emancipation.gif View on Boundless.com
Personality
Astrological signs
Horoscopes are often endorsed because of the Forer effect. The generalized nature of the descriptions allows for a large number of individuals to believe
that they are accurate.
Wikimedia. "Astro signs." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Astro_signs.gif View on Boundless.com
Personality
Phineas Gage's skull

The case of Phineas Gage was one of the first indicators of a biological basis for personality.
Wikipedia. "870-frontispiece-623x1024.jpe." Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JacksonJBS_A_descriptive_catalogue_of_the_Warren_Anatomical_Museum_1870_frontispiece_623x1024.jpg View on
Personality
Conflict within the mind

According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.
Personality
Genetics
The expression of inherited genes plays a role in determining personality.
Wikimedia. "Human genome." CC BY 2.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_genome.png View on Boundless.com
Personality
Locus of control
Rotter's theory of locus of control places an individual on a spectrum between internal and external.
Wikispaces. "MindMaps - Rotter - Jackie." CC BY-SA https://mindmaps.wikispaces.com/Rotter+-+Jackie View on Boundless.com
Personality
Extraversion–Introversion
This image is an example of a personality trait. At one end is extraversion (with a preference for more stimulating environments), and at the other end is
introversion (with a preference for less stimulating environments). An individual may fall at any place on the continuum.
Wikimedia. "ExtrovertIntrovertSpectrum." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ExtrovertIntrovertSpectrum.png View on Boundless.com
Personality
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers was a prominent humanistic psychologist who is known for his theory of personality that emphasizes change, growth, and the potential for
human good.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/36/Carlrogers.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Leader Traits
This chart shows traits for effective leadership. Under "dispositional attributes" is a list of personality traits. Some psychologists argue that a combination
of situational factors and personality traits must be taken into account when discussing behavior. This chart shows a combination of personality,
situational, and other factors.
Wikimedia. "Leader Traits." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leader_Traits.png View on Boundless.com
Personality
The phenomenal field

The phenomenal field refers to a person's subjective reality, which includes external objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The
person's motivations and environments both act on their phenomenal field.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ee/Phenomenal_field.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Biological Influences on Personality

This is the brain of famous personality study participant Phineas Gage, whose personality changed overnight after an accident that shot a railroad spike
through his head, removing integral parts of his brain.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Phineas_Gage_CGI.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Freud and his followers

Several of the psychologists who studied Freud's theories worked directly with Freud himself at Clark University. This photograph shows Carl Jung (front
row, right) with Freud (front row, left) and other colleagues.
Wikimedia. CC BY-SA http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Role Models and Personality

The social-cognitive perspective suggests that role models, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., can influence personality through social learning. Traits and
behaviors exhibited by a role model can influence the personality of an observer.
Wikimedia. "Martin Luther King, Jr.." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King,_Jr..jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Agreeableness across the United States

Some researchers are interested in examining the way in which traits are distributed within a population. This image shows a general measure of how
individuals in each state fall along the five factor trait of agreeableness. The Western states tend to measure high in agreeableness.
Wikimedia. "Agreeableness by state." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Agreeableness_by_state.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
The id, ego, and superego

According to Freud's structural model, the personality is divided into the id, ego, and superego. On this diagram, the portion above the water signifies the
conscious mind, while the portion below the water illustrates the unconscious mind.
Wikimedia. "Id ego superego." GNU FDL http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Id_ego_superego.jpg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Simulated inkblot
This simulated inkblot is similar to those that make up the Rorschach test; a Rorschach inkblot would be filled in rather than a dotted pattern.
Wikimedia. "Rorschach black on white." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rorschach_black_on_white.png View on Boundless.com
Personality
Bobo Doll
The bobo doll is a toy that can be repeatedly punched or kicked and remain upright. It was ideal for testing whether children would imitate the actions of
adults in Bandura's famous study in 1965.
Wikipedia. "Bobo doll-en." CC BY-SA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bobo_doll-en.svg View on Boundless.com
Personality
Boundless. "Boundless." CC BY-SA http://www.boundless.com/ View on Boundless.com
Personality
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Trait Perspectives on Personality

Social-Cognitive Perspectives on Personality

Psychodynamic Perspectives on Personality

Humanistic Perspectives on Personality

Trait Perspectives on Personality

Social-Cognitive Perspectives on Personality

Psychodynamic Perspectives on Personality

Humanistic Perspectives on Personality

• holistic Relating to the whole instead of a separation into parts.

Cognitive-Affective Model of Personality

The id, ego, and superego

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

The Big Five Personality Traits

Limitations of the Trait Theories

Influence of gender roles on personality expression

Phineas Gage's skull

Conflict within the mind

The phenomenal field

Biological Influences on Personality

Freud and his followers

Role Models and Personality

Agreeableness across the United States

The id, ego, and superego

• Wikipedia. "Personality psychology." CC BY-SA 3.0

• Wikipedia. "Trait theory." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory

• Wiktionary. "heritability." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heritability

• Wikipedia. "NEO PI-R." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEO_PI-R

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