Teori Ekonomi Mikro I

(Walter Nicholson, Intermediate Microeconomics and Its

Application, 9th edit)
Chapter 1 : Economics Models

• Economics is the study of the allocation of scarce resources

among alternative end uses.

• Microeconomics is the study of the economics choices

individuals and firms make and how those choices create
markets.

• Models are simple theoretical descriptions that capture the

essentials of how the economy works.

• Supply-demand model is a model (developed by Alfred

Marshall in latter part of nineteenth century) describing how a
good’s price is determined by the behavior of the individuals
who buy the good and the firms that sell it.
• Brief Contents: (Ninth-edition)

• Part 1: Introduction
• 1. Economic Model
• Part 2: Demand
• 2. Utility and Choice
• 3. Individual Demand Curve
• 4. Market Demand and Elasticity
• Part 3: Production, Cost and Supply
• 5. Production
• 6. Cost
• 7. Profit Maximization and Supply
• Part 4: Model of Market Equilibrium
• 8. Perfect Competition
• 9. Applying the Competitive Model
• 10. Monopoly
• 11. Imperfect Competition
• 12. Strategy and Game Theory
• Part 5: Further Topics
• 13. Labor Markets
• 14. Capital Markets
• 15. Uncertainty and Information
• 16. Externalities and Public Goods
 Brief Contents Eleventh Edition
• PART 1. INTRODUCTION
• Ch. 1 Economic Model
• PART 2. DEMAND
• Ch. 2 Utility and Choice
• Ch. 3 Demand Curves
• PART 3. UNCERTAINTY AND
STRATEGY
• Ch. 4 Uncertainty
• Ch. 5 Game Theory
 Continues
• Ch. 7 Cost
• Ch. 8 Profit Maximization and Supply
• PART 5. PERFECT COMPETITION
• Ch. 9 Perfect Competition in a Single
market
• Ch. 10 General Equilibrium and Welfare
• PART 6. MARKET POWER
• Ch. 11 Monopoly
• Ch. 12 Imperfect Competition
 Continues
• PART 7. INPUT MARKETS
• Ch. 13 Pricing in Input Market
• Ch. 14 Capital and Time
• PART 8. MARKET FAILURES
• Ch. 15 Asymmetric Information
• Ch. 16 Externalities and Public Goods
• Ch. 17 Behavioral Economics
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Apakah yg dimaksudkan dengan permintaan
dlm ekonomika mikro itu?
• Ingat:
• Ada permintaan barang/jasa (baik level
konsumen individu→d, maupun level konsumen
keseluruhan di pasar→D)dan ada permintaan
faktor produksi (baik pada level produsen
individu, maupun level produsen seluruh pasar).

2.Bagaimana bentuk hipotetis dari permintaan

tsb. Dan kenapa seperti itu serta bagaimana
secara teoritis untuk mendapatkannya?
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Apakah yg dimaksud dengan penawaran dlm
ekonomika mikro itu?
• Ingat:
• Penawaran ada dua yaitu penawaran
barang/jasa (baik pada level produsen
individu→s, maupun pada level produsen
keseluruhan di pasar→S) dan penawaran
faktor produksi (baik pada level konsumen
individu maupun konsumen secara keseluruhan
di pasar).

• 2.Bagaimanakah bentuk hipotetis dari

penawaran tsb. Dan mengapa bentuknya seperti
itu dan bagaimana pula secara teoritis cara
menentukannya?
 Komsep Dasar: Permintaan
• Permintaan akan suatu komoditas
(Demand for a commodity) adalah
sebuah hubungan/keterkaitan atr:
• Jumlah komoditas yng diminta/dibeli oleh
konsumen dipasar per satuan waktu ttt
(Qdx atau qdx) dan tingkat harga
komoditas tsb per satuannya (Px), ceteris
paribus.
 Konsep Dasar: Penawaran
• Penawaran utk suatu komoditas (Supply
of a commodity) adalah suatu
hubungan/keterkaitan atr jumlah
komoditas yng ditawarkan/dijual oleh
produsen (Qsx atau qsx) dan tingkat
harga komoditas tsb per unit di pasar (Px),
ceteris paribus.
Berbagai Kemungkinan Bentuk:
Permintaan dan Penawaran
• Kemungkinan bentuk:
• 1.Linier
2.Non-linier:
• a. Kwadrat
• b. Kubik
• c. Eksponensial
• d. Lain-lain
 Bentuk: Permintaan dan
Penawaran
• Secara teoritis permintaan dan penawaran
utk setiap komoditas adalah unik (unique)
dalam artian masing-masing memiliki
variabel dan parameter sendiri-sendiri.
• Bentuk spesifik permintaan mencerminkan
perilaku konsumen sedang
• Bentuk spesifik penawaran mencerminkan
perilaku produsen
 Perilaku Konsumen dan
Produsen
• Perilaku konsumen
ditentukan/didorong/diarahkan oleh selera
(taste) dan preferensi (prefference)-nya
• Perilaku produsen
ditentukan/didorong/diarahkan oleh
penguasaan faktor produksi (resources)
dan teknologi produksi (technical
knowhow)-nya
 Keseimbangan Konsumen dlm
Berkonsumsi
• Keseimbangan konsumen dalam
berkonsumsi terjadi waktu:

• Apa yang konsumen mau/ingin (what

consumer’s would like/willing to do)
bertemu/setara/senilai (matching) dng apa
yang konsumen dapat lakukan (what
consumer’s able to do) di pasar
 Keseimbangan Produsen dlm
Berproduksi
• Keseimbangan produsen dlm berproduksi
terjadi pada waktu apa yang produsen
inginkan/maui (what producer’s willing
to do) sama dengan/setara/senilai
(matching) apa yang produsen dapat
lakukan (what producer’s able to do)
• Equilibrium price is the price at which the quantity demanded by
buyers of a good is equal to the quantity of the good supplied by
sellers.

• Partial equilibrium model is an economic model of a single market.

• General equilibrium model is an economic model of a complete

system of markets.

• Production possibility frontier is a graph showing all possible

combinations of goods that can be produced with a fixed amount of
resources. General equilibrium model is an economic model of a
complete system of markets.

• Equilibrium price is the price at which the quantity demanded by

buyers of a good is equal to the quantity of the good supplied by
sellers.

• Production possibility frontier is a graph showing all possible

combinations of goods that can be produced with a fixed amount of
resources.
• Contoh soal 1.
• Diketahui suatu produk kurva permintaannya:
Qd=-2P+20 dan kurva penawarannya: Qs=2P-4
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Tentukan harga dan kuantitas keseimbangan!
• 2.Apabila kurva permintaan berubah menjadi: -
2P+24, c.p., jawab kembali soal a!
• 3.Apabila kurva penawaran berubah menjadi:
2P-8,c.p., maka jawab kembali soal a di atas!
• 4.Apabila ada P.Pn.sebesar 2 utk.setiap produk
yg.dijual, c.p., maka hitung kembali soal a!
• 5.lukiskan persoalan di atas ke grafik!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Sebuah perekonomian diketahui memiliki
persamaan PPF: X²+4Y²=100
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Menurut sdr.apakah biaya oportunitas produk
X thdp.produk Y bersifat tetap atau berubah-
ubah,jelaskan!
• 2.Apabila perekonomian ingin memproduksi 1
unit output X lebih banyak dari 5 menjadi 6,
maka hitung biaya oportunitasya!
• 3.Lukis PPF tsb.ke grafik!
• Opportunity cost is the cost of a good or service as
measure by the alternative uses that are forgone by
producing the good or service.

• Testing assumptions is a method of verifying

economic models that examines the validity of the
assumptions on which the model is based.

• Testing predictions is a method of verifying economic

models that asks if the model can accurately predict
real world events.

• Positive-normative theories distinction is distinction

theories that seek to explain the world as it is an
theories that postulate the way the world should be.
• Pengantar Bab 2

• Salah satu kekuatan yg ada di pasar brg/jasa yg

menentukan tingkat harga dan kuantitas keseimbangan
brg/jasa ttt adalah permintaan pasar (market demand)
dari brg/jasa ybs.

• Pertanyaannya adalah dari mana permintaan pasar

brg/jasa itu diperoleh, faktor-faktor apa saja
yg.menentukannya dan bagaimana serta seberapa
besar faktor-faktor itu menentukan?

• Utk mendapatkan jawaban pertanyaan-pertanyan di atas

harus dipelajari teori perilaku konsumen dlm
berkonsumsi, karena faktor yg ada di balik permintaan
brg/jasa di pasar adalah konsumen. Bab 2 berikut akan
mencoba menganalisis pertanyaan2 tsb di atas.
• Chapter 2. Utility and Choice

• The economic theory of choice begins by

describing people’s preferences. This simply
amounts to a complete cataloging of how a
person feels about all the things he or she might
do. But people aren’t free to do anything they
want-they are constraint by time, income, and
many other factors in the choices open them.
The economist’s model must also describe how
these constraints affect the ways in which
individual actually are able to make choices
based on their preferences.
• Theory of choice is the interaction of preferences and
constraints that causes people to make the choices they do.

• Utility is a pleasure, satisfaction or need fulfillment that people

get from their economic activity.

• Complete-preference is the assumption that an individual is

able to state which of any two options is preferred.

• Transitivity of preference is the preference in which if A is

preferred to B, B is preferred to C then A must be preferred to
C.

• Indifference curve is all the combinations of goods or services

that provide the same level of utility.

• Budget constraint is the limit that income places on the

combinations of goods that an individual can buy.
• Mathematical footnote:
• A.To maximize a cardinal utility function U=f(X,Y) subject
to the constraint Px.X+Py.Y=I, where Px,Py and I are
constant→using Lagrangian multiplier method :
• Max L=f(X,Y)+λ(Px.X+Py.Y-I)
• First order condition:
• dL/dX=∂U/∂X+λPx=0→λ=MUx/Px
• dL/dY=∂U/∂Y+λPy=0→λ=MUy/Py
• dL/dλ=Px.X+Py.Y-I=0
• Ingat: ∂U/∂X=MUx dan ∂U/∂y=MUy
• dari pers 1 dan 2 dpt disimpulkan:
• MUx/MUy=Px/Py
• Second order condition:
• Slope MUx<0 dan slope MUy<0
• Cobb-Douglas Utility Function and
MRS:

• U=XαYß
• MUx=αXα-1 Yß
• MUy=ßXαYß-1
• MRSxfory=MUx/MUy →
• MRSxfory=(αXα-1Yß)/(ßXαYß-1)→
• Sehingga MRSxfory=αY/ßX
• Model Cobb-Douglass dimana α+ß=1;
• Syarat 1 utk terjadinya U maksimal (U*):
• MRSxfory= Px/Py
• αY/ßX = Px/Py atau
• Py.Y=(ß/α).Px.X=(1-α)/α.Px.X
• dan kalau dimasukkan ke pers.anggaran
• X.Px+Y.Py=I
• akan menjadi:
• X*=(αI)/Px dan Y*=(ßI)/Py

• Tugas: jawab contoh soal 1

•
• B.MRS x for y:
Indifference curve→ U=f(X,Y)=constant
dU=∂U/∂X.dX+∂U/∂Y.dY=0
Then the slope along the IC is:
dY/dX|U=-∂u/∂X:d∂/∂Y→-MUx/MUy since MUx and MUy
are both positive
Contoh:
U=√X.Y utk positive then the slope is negative
U=10→10=√X.Y
100=X.Y
Y=100/X
krn.MRSxfory=dY/dX maka=100/X²
Bila X=5 dan Y=20→MRSxfory=100/5²=4,00
Bila x=20 dan Y=5→MRSxfory=100/20²=0,25
Tugas: jawab contoh soal 1
• Konsumsi optimal terjadi waktu:

• 1.IC bersinggungan BL atau

• 2.slope IC = slope BL atau
• 3.MRSx for y = Px/Py atau
• 4.MUx/MUy = Px/Py atau
• 5.MUx/Px = MUy/Py

• Dgn.catatan seluruh anggaran habis

dibelanjakan utk. X dan Y atau
• X.Px + Y.Py = I
• Contoh soal 1.
• Seorang konsumen ingin membeli apel (A) dan
orange (O), diketahui fungsi utilitas totalnya
sbb.: TU=√A.O
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Apabila konsumen tsb.mengkonsumsi A=5
dan O=80, maka berapa TU konsumen!
• 2.Apabila konsumen mengkonsumsi A=10, agar
konsumen memperoleh TU yang sama, maka
berapa konsumen harus mengkonsumsi
O,jelaskan!dan berapa nilai MRS dalam hal ini!
• 3.Apabila konsumen memiliki uang $8,Pa=$0,40
dan Po=$0,10 per untinya, maka tentukan
konsumsi optimal! Buktikan!
• 4.Lukiskan dalam grafik!
• Contoh 2.
• Mr.Joy penikmat “DUGEM” fungsi utilitasnya
thdp.disko (D) dan konser rock (R) sbb.:
TU=√D.C
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Bagaimana bentuk contourline/isoquant
utk.TU=4,TU=5 dan TU=10?
• 2.Kalau orang tsb.memiliki uang $64 dan Pd=$2
dan Pr=$4, maka tentukan persamaan garis
anggarannya!
• 3.Menurut sdr.utk.isoquant TU=√128, dimana
letak titik potong dgn.garis anggaran
tsb,jelaskan!
• 4.Tentukan titik konsumsi optimalnya!
• Contoh 3.
• Ms.Kafeno penikmat minum kopi (C) dan teh
(T),memilki fungsi kepuasan total sbb.:
TU=3C+4T
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Tentukan MRS kopi thdp.teh!
• 2.Berapa TU pada waktu konsumen
mengkonsumsi kopi 5 dan teh 3!
• 3.Kalau diketahui konsumen memiliki uang
$12,Pc dan Pt masing-masing $3, maka
tentukan konsumsi optimal dan berapa TU pada
tingkat konsumsi tsb.,jelaskan!
• 4.Bagaimana penggambarannya dalam grafik!
• Marginal rate of substitution (MRS) is the rate at which an
individual is willing to reduce consumption of one good when
he or she gets one more unit of another good. The negative of
the slope of an indifference curve.

• Indifference curve map is a contour map that shows the utility

an individual obtains from all possible consumption options.

• Budget constraint is the limit that income places on the

combinations of goods and services that an individual can buy.

• If individuals are to obtain the maximum possible utility from

their limited income, they should spend all the available funds
and should choose a bundle of goods for which the MRS is
equal to the price ratio of two goods. Such a utility maximum is
shown graphically by tangency between the individual’s budget
constraint and the highest indifference curve that his or her
income can buy.
• Chapter 3. How Changes in Income and
Prices Affect Choices

• In particular, we will study how changes in

income and/or price of a good affect the amount
that people choose to consume. We will
compare the new choices with those that were
made before condition changed. This kind of
investigation is sometimes called comparative
static analysis. A result of this approach will
construct the individual’s demand for good, this
curve shows how individual responds to different
prices of a good.
• Demand function is a representation of how quantity
demanded depends on prices, income and
preferences.

• Homogeneous demand function is quantity

demanded does not change when prices and income
increase in the same proportion.

• Normal good is a good that is bought in greater

quantities as income increases →lihat fig.3.1

• Inferior good is a good that is bought in smaller

quantities as income increases →lihat fig.3.2
• Substitution effect is the part of the change in quantity
demanded that is caused by substitution of one good for
another. A movement along an indifference curve.

• Income effect is the part of the change in quantity demanded

that is caused by a change in real income.

• Giffen’s paradox is a situation in which the increase in a good’s

price leads people to consume more of the good.

• Complements are two goods such that when the price of one
increases, the quantity demanded of the other falls.

• Substitutes are two goods such that when the price of one
increase, the quantity of the other rises.

• Periksa: fig.3.3 s/d 3.7

• Individual demand curve is a graphic representation of the
relationship between the price of a good and the quantity of it
demanded by a person, holding all other factors constant.

• Increase or decrease in quantity demanded is the increase or

decrease in quantity demanded caused by a change in the
good’s price. Graphically represented by the movement along a
demand curve.

• Increase or decrease in demand is the change in demand for a

good caused by changes in the price of another good, income
or preferences. Graphically represented by a shift of the entire
demand curve.

• Compensated (or Hicksian) demand curve is a demand curve

drawn on the assumption that other prices and utility are held
constant. Income effects of price changes are compensated for
along the curve, and it reflects only substitution effects.
• Consumer’s surplus is the extra value
individuals receive from consuming a
good over what they pay for it. What
people would be willing to pay for the
right to consume a good at its current
price→lihat fiq.3.10 dan fig.1

• Consumer’s price index is the current

value of the market basket of goods
and services purchased by a typical
household compared to a base year
value of the same market basket.
• Contoh soal 1.
• Menurut pendapat sdr.peristiwa-peristiwa tsb.di
bawah ini akan mengakibatkan kurva
permintaan produk pop-corn akan bergeser (ke
kanan-ke kiri) atau sekedar pergerakan
sepanjang kurva itu sendiri saja, jelaskan! :
• 1.adanya kenaikan pendapatan konsumen
• 2.adanya penurunan harga pop-corn
• 3.adanya kenaikan harga pretzel
• 4.adanya penurunan kualitas pop-corn
• 5.adanya pungutan P.Pn utk.produk pop-corn
• Contoh soal 2.
• Mr.Kaka yg.sporty setiap membeli sepatu ket
baru (S) selalu membeli juga kaos baru (K)
sebagai pasangannya.
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Kalau seandainya ia punya uang $200 utk.itu
dan Ps=$20 per pasang dan Pk=$20 per biji,
maka berapa S dan K akan dibeli?
• 2.Kalau Pk naik menjadi $30 per biji,c.p.,maka
berapa S dan K akan dibeli?
• 3.Berapa income effect dan substitusi effect dari
adanya kenaikan Pk tsb. Di atas,jelaskan!
• 4.Bagaimana penggambarannya dalam grafik!
• Pengantar Bab 3 dan 4.

• Berdasarkan basic principles yg ada dlm teori perilaku

konsumen yaitu prinsip2 yg menggambarkan bagaimana
seorang konsumen yg rasional dgn kendala anggaran yg
ada (dilukiskan oleh bentuk budget line yg spesifik) dan
selera konsumen yg juga ttt (dilukiskan oleh indifference
map yg spesifik) menjatuhkan pilihannya dalam
membeli/mengkonsumsi brg/jasa (TKK atau TKO).
• Dari TKK/TKO yg terjadi pd berbagai tingkat harga
brg/jasa dan atau tingkat pendapatan konsumen
akhirnya dpt diderivasi kurva permintaan dan kurva
Engel utk brg/jasa ttt.pd level konsumen individual
(d)→Dari sini akhirnya dpt diidentifikasi D

• Bab 3 dan 4 berikut akan mencoba menganalisis hal itu

secara detail.
• Chapter 4. Market Demand and
Elasticity

• Market demand curves reflect the actions

of many people and show how these
actions are affected by market price. This
chapter describes a few ways of
measuring market demand, the concept of
elasticity and show how we can use it to
record the extent to which the quantity
demanded of a good changes in response
to changes in income and prices.
• Market demand is the total quantity of a good or service
demanded by all potential buyers.

• Market demand curve is the relationship between the total

quantity demanded of a good or service and its price,
holding all other factors constant.

• Elasticity is the measure of the percentage change in one

variable brought about by 1 percent change in some other
variable

• Price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in the

quantity demanded of a good in response to a1 percent
change in its price.
• Berbagai kemungkinan bentuk fungsi
permintan yg sering digunakan:

• 1.Linear demand function→Q=a-bP

• 2.Loglinear atau exponential atau unitary

elastic demand function→
• ln Q = lna + b lnP
• Bentuk awalnya adalah:
• Q=aPb
• Income elasticity of demand is the percentage
change in the quantity of a good in response to
a 1 percent change in income.

• Cross price elasticity of demand is the

percentage change in the quantity demanded of
a good in response to a 1 percent change in the
price of another good.

• Berdasarkan besar-kecilnya angka mutlak

elastisitas barang-jasa dikelompokkan
permintaannya menjadi;
• 1.Elastis→bilangan mutlaknya lebih 1
• 2.Unitari elastis→bilangan mutlaknya = 1
• 3.Inelastis→bilangan mutlaknya kurang 1
• Contoh soal 1.
• Diketahui 3 fungsi permintaan masing-
masing sbb.: Q1=100:P; Q2=100:√P dan
Q3=100:P²
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Hitung Q1,Q2 dan Q3 pada waktu P=4!
• 2.Hitung elastisitas harga pada tingkat
harga tsb.soal a utk.masing-masing
produk di atas! Dan kesimpulan apa
yg.sdr.peroleh dgn.membandingkan
angka-angka itu!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Diketahui suatu produk permintaannya
sbb.: Qx=1000+0,3I-300Px+200Py
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Apabila diketahui I=$10.000;Py=$2,50
maka tentukan fungsi permintaan X!
• 2.Pada waktu Px=5,00 maka hitung Exx,
Exy dan Exi dan apa arti dari angka-angka
itu!
• 3.Kalau seandainya I naik 100% dan Py
turun 20%, maka jawab kembali soal 1
dan 2 di atas!
• Pengantar Bab 5

• Kalau pada Bab 2 s/d 4 dibahas bagaimana

terbentuknya permintaan brg/jasa (baik d maupun D),
maka mulai Bab 5 s/d 12 akan dibahas bagaimana
terbentuknya penawaran brg/jasa (baik s/supply
individual-firm maupun S/all market-supply) di pasar.

• Pembahasan dimulai dari teori produksi dilanjutkan

konsep biaya produksi dan diteruskan penentuan harga
dan jumlah output optimal/keseimbangan baik level
perusahaan individyal maupun pasar mencakup analisis
VSR,SR dan LR, setelah dibahas terlebih dahulu
berbagai struktur/bentuk pasar brg/jasa yaitu bentuk
PPS,PPM,PO dan PM
• Chapter 5. Production

• In this chapter we will show how

economist illustrate the relationship
between inputs and outputs using the
production function. This is the first step in
showing how input cost affect firms’ supply
decisions.
• Firm is any organization that turns input into
output.

• Production function is the mathematical

relationship between inputs and outputs.
• q=f (K,L,M………)

• Marginal physical productivity is the additional

output that can be produced by one more unit of
a particular input while holding all other inputs
constant.
• Berbagai kemungkinan bentuk fungsi
produksi yg sering digunakan:

• 1.Fixed proportion PF→Q=aK+bL

• 2.Cobb-Douglas/Log linear PF→

• LnQ = Lna + bLnK + cLnL
• Bentuk awalnya adalah:
• Q = aKb.Lc

• 3.Classical/Cubic PF→Q=aL + bL² + cL³

• Isoquant map is a contour map of a firms
production function.

• Isoquant is a curve that shows the combinations

of inputs that will produce the same amount of
output.
• Qo = f(K,L)
• Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS)
shows the amount by which one input can be
reduced while holding output constant when one
unit of another input is added.The negative of
the slope of an isoquant.
• Diketahui FP: Q=200√KL
• Ditanyakan:berapa MRTS lfork) pada waktu
K=10 dan L=20?
• Jawab:
• MRTS lfork=MPl/MPk=0,5K/0,5L
• =0,5(10)/0,5(20)
• =5/10
• =0,5
• Ingat:
• MPl=dQ/dL dan MPk=dQ/dL
• Lihat review questions no.5.7 dan 5.8
• Returns to scale (RTS) is the rate at which output
increases in response to proportional increases in all
inputs.
• Ada 3 pola RTS →hal 167-170 dan tabel 5.1 yaitu:
• 1.increasing returns to scale
• 2.constant returns to scale dan
• 3.decreasing returns to scale

• Fixed proportion production function is a production

function in which the inputs must be used in a fixed ratio
to one another→Fig.5.4

• Technical progress is a shift in the production function

that allows a given output level to be produced using
fewer inputs →(fiq.5.5) dan tabel 5.2.
• Contoh soal 1.
• Diketahui fungsi produksi bentuknya sbb.:
q=20√K.L
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Hitung q pada waktu K=100 dan L=100!
• 2.Berapa nilai MRTS K thdp.L pada waktu
penggunaan K dan L tsb.soal 1!
• 3.Bagaimana bentuk persamaan/kurva isoquant
utk.q=2000, jelaskan!
• 4.Menurut sdr.apakah kombinasi K=25 dan
L=400 juga terletak dalam isoquant (q)=2000 tsb
di atas!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Diketahui fungsi produksi ikan tuna dalam
kaleng sbb.: q=6K+4L
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Apabila K=6, berapa L harus disediakan
seandainya produsen ingin menghasilkan
q=60?
• 2.Apabila K=8, berapa L harus disediakan
kalau seandainya ingin menghasilkan
q=100?
• 3.Bagaimana bentuk grafik isoquant
q=100, jelaskan!
• Chapter 6. Costs

• We have developed concepts to describe the

way goods are produced, we can calculate the
costs associated with this activity. This chapter
answer two basic questions about costs. First,
how should the firm choose its inputs to produce
any given level of output as cheaply as possible.
Second, how does this process of cost
minimization differ between the short run when
the firm has rather limited flexibility and the long
run when responses can be much more flexible.
• Opportunity cost is the cost of a good or service as measured by the
alternative uses that are foregone by producing the good or service.

• Accounting cost is the concept that goods or services cost what was
paid for them.

• Economic cost is the concept that goods or services cost the

amount required to keep them in their present use: the amount that
they would be worth in their next best alternative use.

• Biaya produksi sering dikelompokkan menjadi 3 yaitu:

• 1.labor costs
• 2.capital costs dan
• 3.entrepreneurial costs
• Wage rate (w) is the cost of hiring one worker for one hour.

• Sunk cost is expenditure that once made cannot be

recovered.

• Rental rate (v) is the cost of hiring one machine for one
hour.
• →TC = wL+vK

• Economic profit is the difference between a firms total

revenue and its total economic costs.
• Profit = TR-TC=Pq-wL-vK

• Expansion path is the locus of cost minimizing input

combinations a firm will choose to produce various levels of
output, when price of inputs are held constant→Fiq.6.2.
• Short run is the period of a time in which a firm must consider some
inputs absolutely fixed in making its decisions→Fig.6.3 dan 6.4

• Long run is the period of a time in which a firm may consider all of its
inputs to be variable in making its decisions→Fig.1 dan 6.6

• Fixed costs is a costs associated with inputs that are fixed in the
short run.

• Variable costs is costs associated with inputs that can be varied in

the short run.

• Average cost is total cost divided by output: a common measure of

cost per unit.

• Marginal cost is the additional cost of producing one more unit of

output.
• Cara mengubah fungsi produksi ke fungsi
biaya produksi:

• Diketahui fp.: q=10√KL; w=$5 dan v=$5

• Pertanyaan: kalau K=4, maka tentukan fungsi
biaya produksinya!
• Jawab:
• TC=K.v + L.w
• q=10√KL→K=4→q=10√4L=20√L
• →L=q²/400
• TC=4.5+(q²/400).5=20+q²/80
• Utk.lebih jelasnya periksa tabel 6.2
• Cost-minimizing input choice:

• IQ bersingggungan IC
• Slope IQ = slope IC atau
• MRTS(LforK)=w/v atau
• MPl/MPk=w/v→MPl/w=MPk/v
• Contoh:
• Diketahui: Q=10√KL; w=$5/u dan v=$5/u
• Pertanyaan:bila q=40 maka tentukan LCC!
• Jawab:
• Q=40→40=10√KL→4=√KL→16=KL
• →L=16/K
• LCC→MPl/MPk=w/v
• 0,5K/0,5L=5/5→K/L=5/5→K/5=L/5
• K/5=(16/K)/5→5K=80/K→5K²=80
• K²=16→K=4 sehingga L=16/K=4→lihat hal.213
• Contoh soal 1.
• Perusahaan garment memilik fungsi produksi
sbb.: q=2K+L
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Tentukan bentuk grafik isoquant utk.q=20;
q=40 dan q=60! Hitung MRTS k utk.l sepanjang
isoquant tsb.!
• 2.Apabila diketahui Pk (v)=$1 dan Pl juga
(w)=$1, maka tentukan kombinasi K dan L yang
optimal utk.menghasilkan q tsb.soal 1 di atas!
• 3.Apa yg.terjadi kalau seandainya v naik
menjadi $3,c.p, thdp.jawaban soal 2 di atas!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Perusahaan skateboard memiliki fungsi biaya
produksi sbb:TC=q³-40q²+430q+100
• Pertanyaan:
• 1.Tentukan bagaimana bentuk fungsi-fungsi
AVC dan MC!
• 2.Hitung FC,VC dan TC pada waktu q=10!
• 3.Pada tingkat q berapa AVC minimum?
• 4.Pada tingkat q berapa nilai AVC=MC,
jelaskan!
• 5.Bagaimana bentuk grafik dari kurva-kurva
biaya tsb. di atas!
• Contoh 3
• Diketahui fungsi produksi: q=20√KL;
• w=$5 dan v=$10
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Tentukan bentuk isoquant q=40!
• b.Hitung berapa MRTS lfork pada waktu
digunakan 8 dan L 6, jelaskan artinya!
• c.Untuk menghasilkan q=40 tsb.tentukan
LCCnya dan berapa biaya itu, buktikan bahwa
itu biaya minimal!
• d.Bagaimana bentuk fungsi TC,AC dan MC!
• Chapter 7. Profit Maximization and Supply

• In this chapter we use the cost curves developed

in chapter 6 to study firms’ output decisions. This
examination will provide a detailed model of
supply.
• If firms pursue the goal of achieving the largest
economic profits possible, by definition they
seek to make the difference between total
revenues and total economic costs as big as
possible. Here were are using economic consept
of costs and profits.
• Marginal revenue is the extra revenue a firm receives it
sells one more unit of output. MR=P(1+1/eq,p).

• The profit maximizing condition: marginal revenue equal

marginal cost.
• Profit=TR-TC
• Profit maksimal bila;
1.dPr/dq=dTR/dq-dTC/dq=0→MR=MC
• 2.d²Pr/dq²=d²TR/dq²-d²TC/dq²<0→slope MR<slope MC

• Alternatives to profit maximization are:

• 1.Revenue maximization
• 2.Markup pricing→markup=P/AC=P/MC=e/(1+e)
• Short-run supply curve for a price-taking firm is
the positively sloped section of a firm’s SMC
curve above the point of a minimum SAVC.
Shows the supply decisions of a price-taking
firm. In algebraic terms, the firm will opt for q>0
providing
• P.q≥SVC or P≥SVC/q.

• Shutdown price is the price below which the firm

will chose tto produce no output in the short run.
Equal to minimum average variable cost.

• Utk.lebih jelasnya periksa fiq.7.4

• Mathematical footnote for π max:
• Π=TR-TC with respect to q
• First order condition:
• dπ/dq=dTR/dq-dTC/dq=0→MR=MC
• Second order condition:
• d²π/dq²=d²TR/dq²-d²TC/dq²<0→slope
MR<slope MC
• SR: P≥AVC atau TR≥TVC
• LR:P≥AC atau TR≥TC
• Dalam analisis grafis terjadi pada waktu
kurva MR dipotong kurva MC dari bawah.
• Contoh soal 1.
• Produsen menghadapi fungsi biaya sbb.:
TC=0,1q²+10q+50
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Kalau harga jual produk $100/unit,
tentukan jumlah produk optimal! Berapa
profit pada tingkat output itu, jelaskan!
• b.Identifikasi kurva penawaran jangka
pendek produsen tsb.!
• Contoh 2.
• Diketahui produsen menghadapi fungsi
produksi sbb.: q=√K.L
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Apabila diketahui K=100, w=$5 dan
v=$10, maka tentukan fungsi biaya
produksi total (TC) dan fungsi biaya
marjinal (SMC)!
• b.Apabila diketahui harga jual output
$20/unit maka tentukan output optimal dan
hitung pula berapa L yang digunakan pada
tingkat produksi tsb.,jelaskan!
• Chapter 8. The Perfectly Competitive Model

• This chapter discuss how prices are determined

in perfectly competitive markets. The theory
developed is an elaboration of Marshall’s supply
and demand analysis. It show how equilibrium
prices are established and describe some of the
factors that may tend to cause such price to
change. Model developed here is the most basic
model of pricing used by economists.
• Supply response is the change in quantity of
output in response to a change in demand
conditions.

• Market period is a short period of time during

which quantity supplied is fixed.

• Equilibrium price is the price at which the

quantity demanded by buyers of a good is equal
to the quantity supplied of the good by seller.
• Short-run supply curve is the relationship
between market price and quantity supplied of a
good in the short-run →lihat fig.8.2 s/d 8.6

• Short-run/long-run elasticity of supply is the

percentage change in quantity supplied in the
short-run/long-run response to 1 percent change
in a price→ E=%ΔQs/%ΔP

• Long-run Supply:
• Constant/increasing/decreasing cost case is a
market in which entry or exit has no
effect/increases/decreases on the cost curves of
firms →lihat fig.8.7 s/d 8.9
• Contoh soal 1.
• Widget Inc.yang beroperasi dalam PPS
memiliki fungsi biaya sbb.:
STC=0,33q³+10q²+100q+48
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Bila harga output $256 per unit, maka
tentukan output optimal dan hitung profit
perusahaan!
• b.Identifikasi kurva penawaran jangka
pendek perusahaan tsb. Dan lukis
bagaimana bentuknya dlm. grafik!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Local gasoline station beroperasi dalam
PPS.Masing-masing pengusaha memiliki fungsi
biaya rata-rata jangka panjang sbb.:
AC=0,01q-1+100/q
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Apabila diketahui fungsi permintaan pasarnya
adalah: Qd=2.500.000-500.000P, maka hitung
berapa harga keseimbangan jangka
panjangnya!
• b.Berapa jumlah gasoline yg.diminta pada harga
tsb. Soal a di atas, dan berapa pula jumlah
gasoline station yg.ada di wilayah tsb.,jelaskan!
• Chapter 9. Applying the Competitive
Model

• In chapter 1, we can met an educated

parrot who became an economist by
learning to say “supply and demand”. This
parrot knew that practically every applied
economic model starts from the
competitive case outlined in the previous
chapter. Here we will look at some of
these applications.
• Basic assumptions of PCM:

• 1.All individuals and firms take price as given,

they are price taker
• 2.All individuals maximize utility
• 3.All firms maximize profits
• 4.All individuals and firms are fully informed,
there are no transaction cost and there is no
uncertainty

• PCM menjamin:
• 1.Equilibrium prices for all goods
• 2.Will bring about an economically efficient
allocation of resources
• Consumer surplus is the extra value individuals
receive from consuming a good over what they
pay for it. What people would be willing to pay
for the right to consume a good at its current
price.

• Producer surplus is the extra value producers

get for a good in excess of the opportunity cost
they incur by producing it. What all producers
would pay for the right to sell a good at its
current market price.
• Surplus konsumen adalah selisih atr nilai
uang yg sebenarnya konsumen
ingin/sedia bayar dan nilai uang yg
konsumen benar-benar bayar pd waktu
konsumen mengkonsumsi sejumlah
barang ttt pada tingkat harga pasar.Ingat
kurva permintaan adalah konsep
maksimal.
• Secara grafis ditunjukkan oleh luas bidang
segitiga yg terletak di bawah kurva
permintaan di atas harga pasar.
• Surplus produsen adalah selisih antara
nilai uang yg produsen ingin/sedia terima
dan nilai uang yg benar-benar produsen
terima pd waktu ia menawarkan sejumlah
barang ttt pd tingkat harga pasar. Ingat
kurva penawaran adalah konsep minimal.

• Secara grafis surplus produsen

ditunjukkan oleh luas bidang segitiga yg
terletak di atas kurva penawaran di bawah
harga pasar.
• Ricardian rent is long-run profits earned by
owners of low-cost firms. May be capitalized into
the price of these firms’ inputs.

• Aplikasi:
• 1. Output/Price control and shortages (p.325-
333)
• 2.Tax incidence (p.333-341)
• 3.Trade restrictions (p.341-343)
• Tax incidence theory is the study of the
final burden of a tax after considering all
market reaction to it.

• Deadweight loss is losses of consumer

surplus and producer surplus that are not
transferred to other parties.

• Tariff is a tax on an imported good. May

be equivalent to a quota or a
nonquantitative restriction on trade.
• Contoh soal 1.
• Fungsi permintaab brocoli diketahui
sbb.:Qd=1.000-5P sedang fungsi
penawarannya: Qs=4P-80
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Hitung P dan Q keseimbangan!
• b.Berapa consumer surplus dan producer
surplus pada Q keseimbangan di atas!
• c.Pada tingkat Q=300,berapa consumer surplus
dan producer surplus berubah (yang hilang)
dibandingkan dengan Q keseimbangan tsb.pada
soal a! Jelaskan jawaban sdr.
• d.Lukiskan persoalan itu ke dalam grafik!
• Contoh soal 2.

• Permintaan domestik utk.produk radio portabel diketahui sbb.:

Qd=5.000-100P sedang fungsi penawaran domestiknya
sbb.:Qs=150P

• Pertanyaan:
• a.Hitung berapa harga keseimbangan domestik produk tsb.!
• b.Seandainya produk tsb.dapat diimpor dari negara lain, dengan
harga $10 per unit dan pemerintah mengijinkan perdagangan
bebas, maka menurut sdr.berapa jumlah radio portabel yang
dikonsumsi/dibeli di dalam negri?Dari jumlqh itu berapa
yg.diproduksi di dalam negri dan bertapa yg.diimpor, jelaskan!
• c.Kalau dari setiap produk yg.diimpor dikenai tariff $5 per unit, maka
tentukan posisi keseimbangan pasar yang baru! Berapa jumlah tariff
yg.dapat dikumpulkan oleh pemerintah? Berapa consumer surplus
yang pindah ke produsen domestik, jelaskan! Hitung pula berapa
deadweight lossyang muncul akibat dari kebijaksanaan tarif tsb. di
atas!
•
• Why markets fail to achieve economic
efficiency?

• 1.Imperfect competition: a market situation

which buyers or sellers have some influence on
the price
• 2.Externalities: the effect of one party economic
activities that is not taken into account by the
price system
• 3.Public goods: goods that are both
nonexclusive and nonrival
• 4.Imperfect information: individuals and firms
have assymetric information
• Chapter 10. Models of Monopoly

• A market is described as a monopoly if it

has only one producer. This single firm
faces the entire market demand curve, the
monopoly makes a decision on how much
to produce. Unlike the single competitive
firm’s output decision (which has no effect
on market price), the monopoly output
decision will completely determine the
good’s price.
• Bagaimana monopoli terjadi?
• Causes of monopoly is that other firms
impossible to enter the market (barriers to entry),
there are 2 general types of barrier to entry:
• 1.technical and 2.legal barriers.

• Barriers to entry are factors that prevent new

firms from entering a market.

• Natural monopoly is a market in which the good

being produced exhibits diminishing average
cost over a broad range of output levels.
• Technical barriers to entry:

1.Decreasing average cost over a wide

range of output levels
• 2.Special knowledge of low cost method of
production
• 3.Ownership unique resources
• 4.Possession of unique managerial talents
• Legal barriers to entry:

• 1.Legal protection provided by a patent

• 2.Awarding of an exclusive franchise or
license
• Profit maximization:

• 1.MR = MC karena MR tdk sama P maka

syarat ini tak bisa diganti P=MC tapi
P>MR=MC →P>MC
• 2.Slope MR<Slope MC
• 3.Utk SDP→SR: P≥AVC
• LR: P≥AC

• Lihat: Fiq.10.1
• What’s wrong with monopoly?

• 1.Profitability→Fiq.10.2
• 2.Distortion of resource
allocation→Fiq.10.3

• Monopolistic distortions and transfers

of welfare:

• 1.Allocational effects
• 2.Distributional effects
• Monopoly rent is the profit that a monopolist
earns in the long run.
• Price discrimination is selling identical units of
output at different prices.
• Perfect price discrimination is selling each unit of
output for the highest price obtainable. Extracts
all of the consumer surplus available in a given
market.
• Bentuk-bentuk PDP yang lain:
• 1.Quantity discounts
• 2.Two part tariffs
• 3.Market separation
• Regulation of natural monopoly:

• 1.Marginal cost pricing and natural

monopoly dilemma→Fiq.10.6
• 2.Two-tier pricing systems
• 3.Rate of return regulation
• Contoh soal 1.
• Monopolist menghadapi fungsi permintaan
pasar sbb.: Q=70-P
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Kalau seandainya dalam memproduksi barang
tsb.AC=MC=6, maka tentukan jumlah produksi
optimal! Dan juga hitung tingkat harga serta
besarnya keuntungan pada tingkat produksi
dimaksud!
• b.Kalau seandainya biaya utk.memproduksi
barang tsb.adalah TC=0,25Q²-5Q+300 maka
jawab kembali soal a tsb. di atas!
• c.Kalau fungsi biaya spt tsb contoh 2 dalam
model PPS pada sebelumnya, tentukan P dan Q
optimal!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Penerbit buku teks ABC dalam memproduksi
buku Ekonomika diketahui : AC=MC=$5
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Kalau seandainya buku tsb.dijual di 2 pasar
dgn.kondisi permintaan yang berbeda, di pasar
1 permintaannya sbb.:Qd1=55-P1 sedang di
pasar 2 permintaannya sbb.:Qd2=70-2P2, maka
tentukan jumlah output dan harga yang harus
ditetapkan di masing-masing pasar harga
keuntungan totalnya maksimal!Dan berapa
keuntungan itu,jelaskan!
• b.Hitung elastisitas permintaan baik di pasar1
maupun di pasar 2 dan apa arti ekonomi dari
angka elastisitas itu!
• Chapter 11. Models of Imperfect Competition

• This chapter discuss pricing in markets that fall

between the polar extremes of perfect
competition and monopoly. Although no single
model can explain all possible types of such
imperfect competition, we look at a few of basic
element that are common to many of the models
in current use. To that end we discuss on three
topics: (1)pricing of homogeneous goods in
market in which there are relatively few
firms;(2)product differentiation in these market
and (3)how entry and exit affect long-run
outcomes in imperfectly competitive markets. A
related topics, strategy in the competition
between firms, is taken in chapter 12.
• Quasi-competitive model is a model in which
each firm acts as a price taker even though
there may be a few firms.

• Cartel model is a model of pricing in which firms

coordinate their decisions to act as a multiplant
monopoly →lihat fig.11.1

• Cournot model is a model of duopoly in which

each firm assumes the others firm’s output will
not change if it changes its own output level
→lihat fig.11.3
• Reaction function is in the Cournot model
a function or graph that shows how much
one firm will produce given what the other
firm produces.
• Cournot equilibrium is a solution to the
Cournot model in which each firm makes
the correct assumption about what the
other firm will produce.
• Price leadership model is a model in which
one dominant firm takes reactions of all
other firms into account in its output and
pricing decisions.
• Competitive fringe is a group of firms that acts
as price takers in a market dominated by a price
leader →lihat fig.11.4

• Product group is set of differentiated products

that are highly substitutable for one another.

• Monopolistic competition is market in which each

firm faces a negatively sloped demand curve
and there are no barriers to entry →lihat
fig.11.5

• Contestable market is market in which entry and

exit are costless →lihat fig.11.6
• Contoh soal 1.
• Di pasar es krem ada 2 produsen masing-masing
produsen menghasilkan produk yang differentiated dan
menetapkan harga P1 dan P2 serta masing-masing
menghadapi fungsi biaya dlm.berproduksi MC=$2/unit
output. Permintaan yang mrk.hadapi masing-masing:
q1=10-P1+0,5P2 dan q2=10-P2+0,5P1
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Kalau masing-masing produsen menetapkan P=MC,
maka tentukan berapa output dan harga optimal mereka!
• b.Seandainya produsen 1 percaya produsen 2 akan
menetapkan P=$2/unit, maka tentukan berapa P dan q
optimal!
• c.Seandainya produsen 2 mengikuti strategi tsb.soal b,
maka hitung P dan π masing-masing!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Diketahui permintaan pasar crude-oil sbb.:Qd=-
2.000+70.000 dimana di pasar terdapat
produsen yang identik sebanyak 1.000 unit
dengan fungsi biaya: MC=q+5
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Seandainya masing-masing produsen price-
taker, identifikasi kurva penawaran masing-
masing produsen dan pasarnya, jelaskan!
• b.Seandainya di pasar ada 1 produen leader
dan ia memiliki fungsi penerimaan:
• MR=-Q/1.500+25 maka hitung berapa P dan q
optimal utk.produsen leader tsb.!
• Chapter 12. Strategy and Game Theory

• One of the primary tools that economist

use to study the strategic choices that
firms makes is game theory. This subject
was originally developed during the 1920’s
and grew rapidly during WW II an
response to the need to develop formal
ways of thinking about military strategy. In
this chapter we use of game theory in
explaining pricing and entry behavior in
imperfect competitive market.
• Nash equilibrium is a pair of strategy in a two player
game such that a* is an optimal strategy for A against b*
and b* is an optimal strategy for B against a*→lihat
fig.12.1 dan table 12.2

• Dominant strategy is a strategy which is optimal

regardless of the strategy adopted by an
opponent→lihat table 12.1

• Prisoner’s dilemma is a game in which the optimal

outcome for the players is unstable→lihat table 12.3
s/d 12.5

• Perfect equilibrium is a Nash equilibrium in which the

strategy choices of each player do not involve non
credible (empty) threats. That is, no strategy in such an
equilibrium requires a player to carry out an action that
would not be in its interest at the time→lihat table 12.6
• Models of pricing behavior:

• 1.The Bertrand equilibrium→lihat p.398

• 2.Two-stage price games and Cournot
equilibrium→lihat p.398
• 3.Limit pricing→lihat p.407
• 4.Predatory pricing→lihat p.410
• 5.Tacit collusion→lihat p.400
 Cournot Model
• Cournot Model is an model in which firms
simultaneously choose quantities.

• Dalam model Cournot digunakan alat

analisisis:

• Best response/reaction function

 Best response/Reaction
function
• BRF/RF is a function that defines the profit
maximizing level of output for a firm for
given output levels of another firm.

• Q1*=f(Q2) dan

• Q2*=f(Q1)
 Cournot Equilibrium
• Cournot equilibrium is a situation in which
neither firm has an incentive to change its
output given the other firms output.

• CE→RF1=RF2
 P=a-bQ=a-b(Q1+Q2)
P=a-bQ1-bQ2
• TR1= PxQ1= aQ1-bQ12-bQ2Q1 dan
TR2=PxQ2=aQ2-bQ1Q2-bQ22 bila

• C1=c1Q1 dan C2=c2Q2 mk dng

MR1=MC1 didapat

• RF1→Q1=[(a-c1):2b]-0,5Q2 dan
• RF2→Q2=[9a-c2):2b]-0,5Q2
 P=120-Q1-Q2
C=0
• TR1=120Q1-Q12-Q1Q2
• MR1=120-2Q1-Q2
• TR2=120Q2-Q1Q2-Q22
• MR2=120=Q1-2Q2
• Bila MC1=MC2=0 maka
• RF1→Q1=(120-Q2):2 dan
• RF2→Q2=(120-Q2):2
• Hingga CP→Q1*=40 Q2*=40 P*=$40 dan
∏1=∏2=$1600
• Entry,Exit and Strategy
• →lihat p.403 s/d 409

• 1.Sunk cost and commitment

• 2.First-mover advantages
• 3.Incomplete information

• N-Player Game Theory

• Coalitions is a combinations of two or
more players in a game who adopt
coordinated strategies.
• Contoh soal 1.
• Perusahaan A dan B masing-masing
berproduksi dgn.AC dan MC konstan
yaitu: MCa=10 dan MCb=8. Permintaan
yang ada di pasar: Qd=500-20P
• Pertanyaan:
• a.Apabila 2 perusahaan tsb.bekerja dan
saling bersaing dgn.model Bertrand, maka
tentukan P’s Nash equilibrium!
• b.Hitung π utk.maing-masing perusahaan!
• Contoh soal 2.
• Tabel berikut melukiskan the payoff matrix dari
sebuah kegiatan advertising.
• B’s Strategies
• High Low
• High A:5 A:3
• A’s Strategy B:2 B:3
• Low A:4 B:2
• B:3 B:4
• Permintaan:
• a.Jelaskan, mengapa pasangan strategy A:high
dan B:Low adalah Nash equilibrium sedang
pasangan yang lain bukan!
• Pengantar Bab 13

• Pada bab-bab terdahulu dibahas mekanisme (S

dan D) yg ada di pasar brg/jasa dan hal-hal yg
berkaitan dengannya.

• Pada Bab berikut ini akan dibahas mekanisme

(S dan D) yg. ada di pasar faktor produksi
mencakup tenagakerja (labor) dan modal
(capital).Perlu diketahui bahwa permintaan
faktor produksi adalah turunan dari permintaan
brg/jasa, oleh karenanya diantara keduanya ada
benang merah yg menghubungkannya
• Bab 13 Pasar Input:
• Labor and Capital Market

• Marginal revenue product (MRP) is the extra

revenue obtained from selling the output
produced by hiring an extra worker or
machine→MRPl=dTR/dL dan MRPk=dTR/dK

• Marginal value product (MVP) is a special case

of marginal revenue product in which the firm is
a price taker for its output→MVPl=MPl.P dan
MVPk=MPk.P→utk lebih jelasnya lihat table
13.1
• The profit maximizing rules for input
choices:

• v=MEk=MRk=MPk.MR dan
• w=MEl=MRl=MPl.MR

• Khusus utk price taking firm:

• v=MPk.P=VMPk
• w=MPl.P=VMPl→atau MPl/MPk=w/v
• →atau MTRSl for k=w/v→konsisten analisis
• terdahulu!
 Bertrand Model
• Bertrand model is an oligopoly model in
which firms simultaneously choose prices.

• The only Nash equilibrium in the Bertrand

game is for both firms to charge marginal
cost: PA=PB=c.
• Substitution effect is the substitution of one
input for another while holding output constant in
response to a change in the input’s price

• Output effect is the effect of an input price

change on the amount of the input that the firm
hires that results from a change in the firm’s
output level

• Factors that sift input demand and supply

curve→periksa fig.13.1 dan 13.3 serta table
13.2
• Monopsony is a condition in which one
firm is the only hirer in a particular input
market.

• Marginal expense is the cost of hiring

one more unit of an input. Exceeds the
price of the input if the firm faces an
upward-sloping supply curve for the
input→lihat table.13.3 dan fig.23.4
• Profit maximizing
condition→MEl=MVPl→lihat fig.13.5
• Labor supply

• Leisure time is a time spent in any activity other

that market work→lihat table 13A-1 & fig.13A-1

• Substitution effect of a change in w is movement

along an IC in response to a change in the real
wage. A rise in w causes an individual to work
more.

• Income effect of a change in w is a movement to

a higher IC in response to a rise in the real w.If
leisure is a normal good, a rise in w cause an
individual to work less→lihat fig.13A-2 & 13A-3
• Bab 14 Externalities and Public Goods

• Externalitiy is the effect of one party’s economic

activities on another party that is not taken into
account by the price system.

• Ada 3 macam externalities yaitu:

• 1.Externalities between firms
• 2.Externalities between firms and people
• 3.Externalities between people

• Externalities berakibat an inefficient allocation of

resources→lihat fig.16.1
• Bagaimana upaya utk mengatasinya?
• 1.Menegakkan property right
• 2.Taxation

• Property rights is the legal specification of who owns a

good and the trades the owner is allowed to make with it.

• Common property is a property that may be used by

anyone without cost. Private property that is owned by
specific people who may be prevent others from using it.

• Coase theoreem: if bargaining costless, the social cost

of an externality will be taken into account by the parties,
and the allocation of resources will be the same no
matter how property right are assigned.
• Public goods are goods that are both
nonexclusive and non rival in consumption.

• Nonexclusive goods is a goods that provide

benefits that no one can be excluded from
enjoying.

• Nonrival goods is a goods that additional

consumers may use at zero marginal costs→utk
lebih jelas periksa table 16.1

• Public goods mendorong market failure karena

munculnya free-rider→lihat fig.16.4
• Bagaimana upaya mengatasinya?

1.Compulsary taxation.
• Lindahl equilibrium is a balance between
people’s demand for public goods an the
tax shares that each must pay for
them→lihat fig.16.5
2.Direct voting→lihat fig.16.6
 Overview of Games

• The player is an individual who make

decision.
• A strategy is the planned decisions of the
player.
• The payoffs to the player are the profits or
losses that result from the strategies.
 Kinds of games:
• 1.Simultaneoues-move game: game in
which each player makes decisions
without knowledge of the other player’s
decisions: boxing, soccer.

• 2.Sequential-move game: game in which

one player makes a move after observing
the other player’s move: chess, dominos
 Kinds of strategies:
• 1. A dominant strategy is a strategy the
results in the highest payoff to a player
regardless of the opponent’s action.

• 2.A secure strategy is a strategy that

guarantees the highest payoff given the
worst possible scenario.
 Nash’s Equilibrium

• NE is a condition describing a set of

strategies in which no player can improve
her payoff by unilaterally changing her
own strategy given the other player’s
strategies.