The Study of Logic

MODULE 6: MEDATE
INFERENCE
DEDUCTION

 IT IS A FORM REASONING THAT

PROCEEDS FROM A UNIVERSAL OR
GENERAL ASSERTION TO A PARTICULAR
CONCLUSION.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

 THE PREMISE CLAIM TO PROVIDE SOLID

EVIDENCE OR GROUND FOR THE
CONCLUSION TO BE CONSIDERED AS
VALID.
CONCLUSION

 IT IS ARRIVED AT BY VIRTUE OF THE

RELATION BETWEEN THE PREMISES
WHICH NECESSITATES A TRUTH-CLAIM.
EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT
 WHATEVER EXISTS MUST HAVE A CAUSE
 THE UNIVERSE EXISTS.
 THEREFORE, THE UNIVERSE MUST HAVE A
CAUSE.

THE CONCLUSION “THE UNIVERSE MUST

HAVE A CAUSE” PROCEEDS FROM THE
UNIVERSE OR GENERAL PREMISE
“WHATEVER EXISTS MUST HAVE A CAUSE”
EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT

 WHATEVER EXISTS MUST HAVE A

CAUSE
 THE UNIVERSE EXISTS.
 THEREFORE, THE UNIVERSE MUST HAVE
A CAUSE.
THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

 WHATEVER EXISTS MUST HAVE A

CAUSE
 THE UNIVERSE EXISTS.
 THEREFORE, THE UNIVERSE MUST HAVE
A CAUSE.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

RULE NO. 1

THERE MUST BE THREE

TERMS AND ONLY THREE
TERMS: MAJOR, MINOR
AND MIDDLE.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

RULE NO. 2

EACH TERM MUST OCCUR IN TWO

PROPOSITION.
THE MAJOR TERM OCCUR IN THE
CONCLUSION AND IN THE MAJOR OR
FIRST PREMISE
THE MINOR TERM OCCURS IN THE
CONCLUSION AND THE MINOR OR
SECOND PREMISE.
THE MIDDLE TERM IS IN BOTH PREMISES
BUT NOT AND NEVER IN THE
CONCLUSION
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM
RULE NO. 3

THE MAJOR AND MINOR

TERMS MAY NOT BE
UNIVERSAL IN THE
CONCLUSION UNLESS THEY
ARE UNIVERSAL IN THE
PREMISES.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

RULE NO. 4

THE MIDDLE TERM MUST

BE UNIVERSAL, OR
DISTRIBUTED, AT LEAST
ONCE.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM
RULE NO. 5

IF BOTH PREMISES ARE

AFFIRMATIVE, THE
CONCLUSION MUST BE
AFFIRMATIVE.
THE VIOLATION HEREIN IS
DRAWING A NEGATIVE
CONCLSION FROM
AFFIRMATIVE PREMISES.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

RULE NO. 6

IF ONE PREMISE IS
AFFIRMED AND THE
OTHER IS NEGATIVE, THE
CONCLUSION MUST BE
NEGATIVE.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

RULE NO. 7

IF BOTH PREMISES ARE

NEGATIVE, THERE IS NO
CONCLUSION AT ALL.
RULES FOR CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

RULE NO. 8

IF BOTH PREMISES ARE

PARTICULAR, THERE IS NO
CONCLUSION AT ALL.
 The Logical Form of the Categorical Syllogism:
Figures and Moods

The FIGURE of a categorical syllogism consist of the

arrangement of the terms in the premises. There are
four (4) figure and each is defined by the position of
the middle term in the syllogism.

1st Figure 2nd Figure 3rd Figure 4th Figure

M T T M M T T M
t M t M M t M t
(sub-pre) (pre-pre) (sub-sub) (pre-sub)
 The MOODS of the categorical syllogism consists of the
disposition of the premises according to quality and
quantity. There are sixteen (16) possible arrangements of
the premises according to quality and quantity, but only
the following are valid.

Major Premise: A A A A E E I O
Minor Premise: A E I O A I A A

Note: Not all these moods are valid in every figure.

 THE FIRST FIGURE. In the first figure, the middle
term is the subject of the major premise and the predicate
of the minor premise (sub-pre).

Major Premise: A A E E
Minor Premise: A I A I
Conclusion: A I E O

Rules for the 1st figure:

1. The major premise must be universal (A or E).

2. The minor premise must be affirmative (A or I).

Exercise: Apply both the general rules and the special rules of
the first figure to the following syllogism.

1. Every B is a C;
but no A is a B;
therefore no A is a C.

2. No Z is an X;
but every Y is a Z;
therefore no Y is an X.
3. Every cat is an animal;
but no dog is a cat;
therefore no dog is an animal.
4. Some people are difficult to get along with;
but all Americans are people;
therefore some Americans are difficult to get along
with.
5. Some men are walking;
but Peter is a man;
therefore Peter is walking.
 THE SECOND FIGURE. In the second figure, the middle term is
the predicate of both the premises (pre-pre).

Major Premise: A A E E
Minor Premise: E O A I
Conclusion: E O E O

Rules for the 2nd figure:

1. The major premise must be universal (A or E).

2. One premise must be negative.

Exercise: Apply both the general rules and the special rules of
the second figure to the following syllogism.

1. Some metal floats on water;

but potassium floats on water;
therefore potassium is a metal.

2. Democratic governments protect freedom;

but this government protects freedom;
therefore this government is democratic.
3. Filipinos are generous;
but Don Juan is not generous;
therefore Don Juan is not a Filipino.

4. All mammals are viviparous;

but some fish are viviparous;
therefore some fish are mammals.

5. C is not B;
but A is B;
therefore A is not C.
THE THIRD FIGURE. In the third figure, the middle term is the
subject of both the premises (sub-sub).

Major Premise: A A E E I O
Minor Premise: A I A I A A
Conclusion: I I O O I O

Rules for the 3rd figure:

1. The minor premise must be affirmative (A or I).

2. The conclusion must be particular (I or O).

Exercise: Apply both the general rules and the special rules of
the third figure to the following syllogism.

1. Potassium floats on water;

but potassium is a metal;
therefore some metal floats on water.

2. Some Inquisitors were cruel;

but some Inquisitors were good men;
therefore some good men were cruel.
3. Ebony does not float on water;
but ebony is wood;
therefore some wood does not float on water.

4. Socrates was a philosopher;

but Socrates was a Greek;
therefore some Greek was a philosopher.

5. Some men are silly;

but every man is an animal;
therefore some animal are silly.
 THE FOURTH FIGURE. In the fourth figure, the
middle term is the predicate of the major premise and the
subject of the minor premise (pre-sub).
Major Premise: A A E E I
Minor Premise: A E A I A
Conclusion: I E O O I
Rules for the 4th figure:
1. If the major premise is affirmative (A or I), the
minor premise must be universal (Aor E).
2. If the minor premise is affirmative (A or I), the
conclusion must be particular (I or O).
3. If a premise (and the conclusion) is negative (E or
O), the major premise must be universal (A or E).
Exercise: Apply both the general rules and the special rules of
the fourth figure to the following syllogism.

1. Every hound is a dog;

but every dog is an animal;
therefore some animal is a hound.

2. All men have free will;

but some having free will are potential doers of evil;
therefore some potential doers of evil are men.
3. No person under 18 years of age is a voter;
but some voters are university students;
therefore some university students are not under
18 years of age.

4. All voters are over 18 years of age ;

but some who are 18 years of age are university
students;
therefore some university students are voters.