Steel Alloy and Heat Treatment

(Paduan Baja dan Perlakuan

Panas)
• Chapter 9 & 10 (Callister)
• Notes

Chapter 9 -
Why Study Phase Transformation
• Understanding the Mechanical
property
• Able to describe microstructures:
– perlite,
– spherodite,
– bainite,
– martensite
• Designing mechanical properties
based on cooling transformation

Chapter 9 -
 Phase Diagrams for Metallic
Systems
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• When we combine two elements...
what equilibrium state do we get?
• In particular, if we specify...
--a composition (e.g., wt% Cu - wt% Ni), and
--a temperature (T )
then...
How many phases do we get?
What is the composition of each phase?
How much of each phase do we get?

Phase A Phase B

Nickel atom
Copper atom
Chapter 9 - 3
Chapter 9 - 4
 Modern Material For Transport
Vehicles
Four major groups of engineering materials:
1. Metals and alloys
2. Ceramics and glasses
3. Plastic and polymers
4. Modern composites

Physical properties to consider:

– Strength, stiffness, and ductility under static and
dynamic loading conditions
– Fracture toughness, density, expansion
coefficient, electrical conductivity, corrosion &
environmental stability
23-Feb-18 AE4043-6403
Chapter 9 - 5
 Material Selection Consideration
Direct Engineering :
• Performance requirement (strength,
electrical conductivity, temperature,
transparency, chemical resistance)
• Manufacturability
• Production cost

Non-Engineering/Environmental Issues:
• Pollution
• Recycling
23-Feb-18 AE4043-6403
Chapter 9 - 6
 1. Why Steel

• Steels cover a wide range of applications and product forms

• Steels can be extruded, drawn, stamped, rolled, welded, and forged
into many forms.

Chapter 9 -
Requirement Categories Driving Material Selection
 Meet Performance requirements with mass and cost EFFICIENCY

Highest Ultimate Strength

(“safety cage” energy transfer)
High Strength AND Higher
Ductility (manage crash energy)

Primarily Stiffness dominant

(also help manage durability)

Minimum Gage Closeouts

(contribute stiffness, some
strength)

Chapter 9 -
 Phase Equilibria: Solubility Limit
Introduction
– Solutions – solid solutions, single phase
– Mixtures – more than one phase Adapted from Fig. 9.1,
Callister 7e.

Sucrose/Water Phase Diagram

• Solubility Limit: 100
Max concentration for

Temperature (°C)
Solubility
which only a single phase 80 Limit L
solution occurs. (liquid)
60 +
L
Question: What is the 40 (liquid solution S
solubility limit at 20°C? i.e., syrup) (solid
20 sugar)
Answer: 65 wt% sugar.
If Co < 65 wt% sugar: syrup 0 20 40 6065 80 100
If Co > 65 wt% sugar: syrup + sugar.

Sugar
Water

Co =Composition (wt% sugar)

Pure

Pure
Chapter 9 - 9
 Components and Phases
• Components:
The elements or compounds which are present in the mixture
(e.g., Al and Cu)
• Phases:
The physically and chemically distinct material regions
that result (e.g., a and b).

Aluminum- b (lighter
Copper
phase)
Alloy

a (darker
phase)
Adapted from
chapter-opening
photograph,
Chapter 9,
Callister 3e.

Chapter 9 - 10
 Phase Equilibria

Simple solution system (e.g., Ni-Cu solution)

Crystal electroneg r (nm)

Structure
Ni FCC 1.9 0.1246
Cu FCC 1.8 0.1278

• Both have the same crystal structure (FCC) and have

similar electronegativities and atomic radii (W. Hume –
Rothery rules) suggesting high mutual solubility.
• Ni and Cu are totally miscible in all proportions.

Chapter 9 - 11
 Phase Diagrams
• Indicate phases as function of T, Co, and P.
• For this course:
-binary systems: just 2 components.
-independent variables: T and Co (P = 1 atm is almost always used).
T(°C)
• Phase 1600 • 2 phases:
Diagram L (liquid)
1500
for Cu-Ni L (liquid) a (FCC solid solution)
system 1400 • 3 phase fields:
L
1300 L+a
a
1200 a Adapted from Fig. 9.3(a), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 9.3(a) is adapted from Phase
1100
(FCC solid Diagrams of Binary Nickel Alloys, P. Nash
(Ed.), ASM International, Materials Park,
solution) OH (1991).
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 wt% Ni Chapter 9 - 12
 Phase Diagrams:
# and types of phases
• Rule 1: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the # and types of phases present.
T(°C)
• Examples: 1600
A(1100°C, 60): L (liquid)

B (1250°C,35)
1 phase: a 1500
Cu-Ni
B(1250°C, 35): 1400 phase
2 phases: L + a diagram
1300 a
(FCC solid
1200 solution)
Adapted from Fig. 9.3(a), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 9.3(a) is adapted from Phase 1100 A(1100°C,60)
Diagrams of Binary Nickel Alloys, P. Nash
(Ed.), ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 1991). 1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 wt% Ni
Chapter 9 - 13
 Phase Diagrams:
composition of phases
• Rule 2: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the composition of each phase. Cu-Ni
T(°C) system
• Examples:
TA A
Co = 35 wt% Ni tie line
At T A = 1320°C: 1300 L (liquid)

Only Liquid (L) B

CL = Co ( = 35 wt% Ni) TB
a
At T D = 1190°C:
1200 D (solid)
Only Solid ( a) TD
Ca = Co ( = 35 wt% Ni)
20 3032 35 4043 50
At T B = 1250°C: CLCo Ca wt% Ni
Both a and L Adapted from Fig. 9.3(b), Callister 7e.
CL = C liquidus ( = 32 wt% Ni here) (Fig. 9.3(b) is adapted from Phase Diagrams
of Binary Nickel Alloys, P. Nash (Ed.), ASM
Ca = C solidus ( = 43 wt% Ni here) International, Materials Park, OH, 1991.)
Chapter 9 - 14
 Phase Diagrams:
weight fractions of phases
• Rule 3: If we know T and Co, then we know:
--the amount of each phase (given in wt%). Cu-Ni
• Examples: T(°C) system
Co = 35 wt% Ni TA A
tie line
At T A : Only Liquid (L) 1300 L (liquid)
W L = 100 wt%, W a = 0 B
At T D: Only Solid ( a) TB R S
a
W L = 0, Wa = 100 wt%
1200 D (solid)
At T B : Both a and L TD
S  43  35  73 wt %
WL 
20 3032 35 40 43 50
R + S 43  32 CLCo Ca wt% Ni
Adapted from Fig. 9.3(b), Callister 7e.
R
Wa 
(Fig. 9.3(b) is adapted from Phase Diagrams of
= 27 wt% Binary Nickel Alloys, P. Nash (Ed.), ASM
R +S International, Materials Park, OH, 1991.)

Chapter 9 - 15
 The Lever Rule
• Tie line – connects the phases in equilibrium with
each other - essentially an isotherm
T(°C) How much of each phase?
tie line
Think of it as a lever (teeter-totter)
1300 L (liquid)
ML Ma
B
TB
a
1200 (solid)
R S R S
20 30C C
L o
40 C
a
50
M a S  M L R
wt% Ni Adapted from Fig. 9.3(b),
Callister 7e.

ML S C  C0 R C  CL
WL    a Wa   0
ML  M a R  S Ca  CL R  S Ca  CL
Chapter 9 - 16
 Chapter 9 - 17
f24_09_pg290
 4. Phase Diagram

• Ferri • Auste
te nite

• The iron-iron-carbide phase

diagram
Chapter 9 -
 Discussion (7 minutes)
• Explain what happen when pure iron is
heated from RT to 1800C
• At what temp. and composition eutectic,
eutectoid and peritectic reactions occur.

Chapter 9 - 19
 Ferrous Alloys
ferrous alloys are classified based on carbon
content :
• - commercially pure iron
C < 0.008 wt%C  contain mostly a at
room temp.
• - steels 0.008 < C < 2.14 wt%C  consist a
and Fe3C at room temp. Mostly steels
have carbon content less than 1wt%
• - cast irons 2.14 < C < 6.70 wt%C, normally the
carbon content is less than 4.5 wt%

Chapter 9 - 20
 Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Phase Diagram
• 2 important T(°C)
1600
points d
-Eutectic (A): 1400 L
L  g + Fe3C g g +L
1200 1148°C
A L+Fe3C
-Eutectoid (B): (austenite)

Fe3C (cementite)
R S
g  a + Fe3C 1000 g g
g g g +Fe3C

a
800 727°C = T
B eutectoid
R S
600
a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) 0.76 4.30 Co, wt% C
120 mm
C eutectoid

Result: Pearlite = Fe3C (cementite-hard)

alternating layers of a (ferrite-soft)
a and Fe3C phases
(Adapted from Fig. 9.27, Callister 7e.) Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
Chapter 9 - 21
 Chapter 9 - 22
f26_09_pg293
 Chapter 9 - 23
f28_09_pg295
 Hypoeutectoid Steel
T(°C)
1600
d
1400 L
g g (Fe-C
g g +L
g g 1200 1148°C L+Fe3C System)

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
g g 1000
g g g + Fe3C Adapted from Figs. 9.24
and 9.29,Callister 7e.
a (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
ag g 800 r s 727°C Binary Alloy Phase
g ag aRS Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol.
1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
w a =s/(r +s) 600
w g =(1- wa )
a + Fe3C Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH,
1990.)
400
a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) Co , wt% C
0.76

C0
pearlite
w pearlite = w g
Hypoeutectoid
w a =S/(R+S) 100 mm
steel
w Fe3 =(1-w a )
C
pearlite proeutectoid ferrite
Adapted from Fig. 9.30,Callister 7e. Chapter 9 - 24
 Chapter 9 - 25
f29_09_pg295
 Hypereutectoid Steel
T(°C)
1600
d
1400 L (Fe-C
g g +L System)
g g
g g
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
g g 1000
g g g +Fe3C Adapted from Figs. 9.24
and 9.32,Callister 7e.
Fe3C
g g
(Fig. 9.24 adapted from
800 r s Binary Alloy Phase
g g a R S
Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol.
1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
w Fe3C =r/(r +s) 600
a +Fe3C Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH,
w g =(1-w Fe3C ) 1990.)
400
0 1 Co 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
0.76

(Fe)
pearlite Co , wt%C
w pearlite = w g
w a =S/(R+S)
w Fe3C =(1-w a ) 60 mmHypereutectoid
steel
pearlite proeutectoid Fe3C
Adapted from Fig. 9.33,Callister 7e. Chapter 9 - 26
 Chapter 9 - 27
f32_09_pg298
 Chapter 9 - 28
f31_09_pg297
 Example: Phase Equilibria
For a 99.6 wt% Fe-0.40 wt% C at a temperature
just below the eutectoid, determine the
following
a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite (a)
b) the amount of carbide (cementite) in grams
that forms per 100 g of steel
c) the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid
ferrite (a)

Chapter 9 - 29
 Phase Equilibria
Solution: a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite (a)
b) the amount of carbide CO = 0.40 wt% C
(cementite) in grams that Ca = 0.022 wt% C
forms per 100 g of steel CFe C = 6.70 wt% C
3
1600
d
Fe3C Co  Ca 1400 L
 x100 T(°C)
Fe3C  a CFe 3C  Ca g g +L

Fe C (cementite)
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C
(austenite)
0.4  0.022
 x 100  5.7g 1000
6.7  0.022 g + Fe3C
800 727°C
R S
Fe3C  5.7 g 600 a + Fe3C
a  94.3 g 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
Ca CO Co , wt% C CFe
3C

Chapter 9 - 30
 Phase Equilibria
c. the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite (a)
note: amount of pearlite = amount of g just above TE
Co = 0.40 wt% C
Ca = 0.022 wt% C 1600
Cpearlite = Cg = 0.76 wt% C d
1400 L
T(°C)
g Co  Ca g g +L
 x 100  51.2 g 1200

Fe C (cementite)
1148°C L+Fe3C
g  a Cg  Ca (austenite)
1000
g + Fe3C
800 727°C
RS
pearlite = 51.2 g 600 a + Fe3C
proeutectoid a = 48.8 g 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
Ca CO Cg Co , wt% C

Chapter 9 - 31
Problem: Phase Equilibria (10 minutes)
For a 99.0wt% Fe-1.0 wt% C at a temperature
just below the eutectoid, determine the
following
a) composition of Fe3C and ferrite (a)
b) the amount of carbide (cementite) in grams
that forms per 100 g of steel
c) What is the proeutectoid phase?
d) the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid
phase

Chapter 9 - 32
 Alloying Steel with More Elements

• Teutectoid changes: • Ceutectoid changes:

Ceutectoid (wt%C)
T Eutectoid (°C)

Ti Si
Mo W Ni
Cr
Cr Si
Mn
Mn W
Ti Mo
Ni

wt. % of alloying elements wt. % of alloying elements

Adapted from Fig. 9.34,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.34 Adapted from Fig. 9.35,Callister 7e. (Fig. 9.35
from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the Alloying from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the Alloying
Elements in Steel, American Society for Metals, Elements in Steel, American Society for Metals,
1939, p. 127.) 1939, p. 127.)

Chapter 9 - 33
 Metal and Alloys
• Mild, Low carbon steels:
– Cold Rolled (CR2, CR3, CR4), 220-300 Mpa
– Used for Body panels, wheels.
– Easy to cut, bend, machine, weld
• Medium/high carbon alloy steels:
– Cold Rolled CR400, Hot Rolled HR 400 – 400 Mpa
– Used for drive shafts, gear wheels, energy absorbing members
of front/rear rails
• High strength steels:
– Dual Phase (DP), Martensitic Steels, 600-1000 Mpa
– Used for bearing surface, structural protection application
such as side rockers, B-Pillar, A-Pillar
• Ultra high strength steels:
– Boron alloy, press hardened steel (PHS), 1100-1500
Mpa
– Used for Bumper beam, door beam, landing gear
(aircraft)
23-Feb-18 AE4043-6403
Chapter 9 - 34
 Microstructure Forms
Phase transformation from Austenite after cooling
process will form several possible microstructure
constituents:
a) Pearlite
b) Bainite : ferrite and cementite phases formed
from the diffusional process
c) Spherodite: Heating steel alloy with
bainite/perlite just below eutectoid
temperature (~700 C) for long period of time
will form a sphere-like cementite.
d) Martensite : non-equilibrium single phase
structure that results from diffusionless
transformation of austenite
Chapter 9 - 35
 Thermal Processing of Steels
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagram

“Heat treated sheet steels”

AUSTENITE Microstructure
Ar3
Critical FERRITE
Legend
Temperature

transformation Austenite
PEARLITE
temperatures
Martensite
BAINITE Ferrite
Ms
MARTENSITE Bainite
Fast Time
quench

MARTENSITE DUAL TRIP COMPLEX

PHASE AHSS update PHASE
Chapter 9 - 36
Engineering Stress vs. Engineering Strain
Engineering Stress vs. Engineering Strain for a
Variety of GM-Approved Steels
1800
GMW3399 MS900 (Martensitic Sheet)
1600 PHS
GMW2 (Mild Steel)
1400 GM14400 (PHS)
Stress (MPa)

1200 GMW3399 DP780 (Dual Phase)

1000 MS 900 GMW3032 270B2 (Bake Hardenable)

DP800 GMW3399 DP590 (Dual Phase)
800
600 DP600

400 270B2
Mild Steel
200
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain

Chapter 9 -
 Automotive Steel Strength vs. Ductility
Low Strength High Strength AHSS’s and Ultra HSS’s

70
60
50
40
Elongation (%)

Mild 1000 MPa

30%
1500 MPa
30 BH 20%

20
10 MART
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1900
Tensile Strength (MPa)
Current Plans: Increase in PHS
Currently TRIP steel doesn’t meet Short Term: Advances in DP/CP, Higher strength Martensite
weldability requirements (5/11/12) Long Term: Gen3 AHSS per targets

Chapter 9 -
 Summary

• Phase diagrams are useful tools to determine:

--the number and types of phases,
--the wt% of each phase,
--and the composition of each phase
for a given T and composition of the system.
• Alloying to produce a solid solution usually
--increases the tensile strength (TS)
--decreases the ductility.
• Binary eutectics and binary eutectoids allow for
a range of microstructures.

Chapter 9 - 39
 Homework #2
1. Consider 6.0 kg of austenite containing
0.45% C, cooled to below 727 C
a. What is the proeutectoid phase
b. How many kilograms each of total ferrite
and cementite form
c. How many kilograms each of pearlite and
proeutectoid phase form
d. Schematically sketch and label the
resulting microstructure
Callister (edisi 7) 9.51

Chapter 9 - 40
 Homework #2
2. In the Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) phase
diagram:
– Draw/sketch and label by hand the Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram!
– Explain clearly about proeutectoid, eutectoid
ferrite, austenite, cementite, pearlite, bainite,
spherodite, martensite ? Explanation should
include process, microstructure shape,
composition
– Explain clearly about hypoeutectoid alloys and
sketch schematically microstructure forming?
– Explain clearly about hypereutectoid alloys and
sketch schematically microstructure forming?
Chapter 9 - 41
 Homework #2
3. Consider 2.0 kg of a 99.6 wt% Fe–0.4 wt%
C alloy that is cooled to a temperature just
below the eutectoid.
(a) How many kilograms of proeutectoid
ferrite form?
(b) How many kilograms of eutectoid ferrite
form?
(c) How many kilograms of cementite form?

Chapter 9 - 42
 Homework #2
4. Consider 2.5 kg of austenite containing
0.65 wt% C, cooled to below 7270 C (13410
F).
(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite
and cementite form?
(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and
the proeutectoid phase form?
(d) Schematically sketch and label the
resulting microstructure.

Chapter 9 - 43