Cell Organization

by Ferdinand Lanestosa, MASED

(Professor)

CHAPTER 4
 Cell Organization

 Tissues – a group of similarly

structured and functioning cells.
 In most cases, the red blood cell is
used as a standard of reference for
cell size to which other cells are
compared (has an average of 7.5
microns)
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 Shape of cells vary.

 Many cells are spherical in shape.
 Often the shape of the cell is related
to its function.
 Skeletal muscle cell – is long
sometimes many inches in length
which is contractile to make
movement possible
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 Shape of cells vary.

 Axon – may be 1.2 to 1.5 meters
long while the dendrites are short
and branching and are responsible
for conveying information.
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ANIMAL TISSUES
 The development of a fertilized egg
into a newborn child requires an
average of 41 rounds of mitosis (241 =
2.2 x 1012).
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ANIMAL TISSUES
During this period, the cells
produced by mitosis enter different
pathways of differentiation; some
becoming blood cells, some muscle
cells, and so on.
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ANIMAL TISSUES
 There are more than 100 visibly-
distinguishable kinds of differentiated
cells in the vertebrate animal. These
are organized into tissues; the tissues
into organs. Groups of organs make
up the various systems — digestive,
excretory, etc. — of the body.
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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Epithelial
tissue is a sheet of cells that
covers a body surface or lines a body
cavity
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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Two forms occur in the human body:
1. Covering and lining epithelium– forms
the outer layer of the skin; lines open
cavities of the digestive and
respiratory systems; covers the walls of
organs of the closed ventral body
cavity.
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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Two forms occur in the human
body:
2. Glandular epithelium– surrounds
glands within the body.
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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Classification according to embryological
origin:
1. Mesothelium – spread over the walls of the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
2. Endothelium – lines the blood vessels and
the heart.
3. Ectothelium – cover the surface of the
body.
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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Classification according to shape and
arrangement of their cells:
1. Squamous – contains flat cells arrange
like tiles such as those found in the lens
of the eye and inner ear. Stratified
squamous epithelium forms the external
layer of the skin and lines mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, cervix, the vagina
and the anal canal.
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Simple Squamous Epithelium

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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Classification
according to shape and
arrangement of their cells:
2. Cuboidal – consists of cube-shaped
cells arranged in a very regular pattern.
It is mostly found lining small ducts and
tubules of the kidney and the glands.
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Cuboidal Epithelium
A. Epithelial Tissues
 Classification
according to shape and
arrangement of their cells:
3. Columnar – has its own variations, but in
all, the cells are taller than they are
wide. Some of these cells possess hair-
like projections known as cilia which
cause the surface secretions to flow as
they move in waves.
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Simple Columnar Epithelium

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A. Epithelial Tissues
 Classification
according to shape and
arrangement of their cells:
3. Columnar – these are found in the
trachea and bronchi and is widely
distributed in the digestive tract where it
functions to secrete fluids and absorb
digested food.
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Glandular Epithelium
A gland is one or more cells that
produce and secrete a specific
product. The product is always a
water-based fluid (aqueous) and
usually contains proteins (the
product is referred to as a
secretion).
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Glandular Epithelium
 Secretion is considered an active
process. Glandular cells obtain
substances needed from blood and
transform them (chemically) into a
product that’s discharged from the
cell.
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Glandular Epithelium
 Types of Glands:
1. Endocrine – does not have a duct
so also known as ductless gland.
They produce hormones (chemical
messengers) and secrete them by
exocytosis into the extracellular
space.
Glandular Epithelium
 Types of Glands:
1. Endocrine – After entering the
extracellular space, they enter the
blood or lymphatic fluid and travel
to specific organs.
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Glandular Epithelium
 Types of Glands:
1. Endocrine – Each hormone
makes its target organ respond in
a specific way. For instance,
hormones produced by intestinal
cells cause the pancreas to
release enzymes that aid in
digestion.
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Glandular Epithelium
 Types of Glands:
2. Exocrine – secrete their products
onto the skin or into body cavities.
Unicellular exocrine glands do this
directly by exocytosis, while
multicellular glands transport their
product through a duct on the
epithelial surface. Products secreted
by exocrine glands include sweat, oil,
mucous, bile, and more.
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 Cell Organization

B. Connective Tissues
 Connectivetissue, group of tissues in
the body that maintain the form of
the body and its organs and provide
cohesion and internal support.
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Connective Tissues of the Human Body

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B. Connective Tissues
 The connective tissues include several
types of fibrous tissue that vary only in
their density and cellularity, as well as
the more specialized and
recognizable variants adipose,
alveolar, cartilage, and bone.
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B. Connective Tissues
1. Adipose – consisting mainly of fat
cells (adipose cells, or adipocytes),
specialized to synthesize and
contain large globules of fat, within
a structural network of fibers.
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B. Connective Tissues
1. Adipose – fat serves a protective
function, and also as an excellent
source of energy. The cells are
under the skin, around organs,
mammary glands and bone
marrow.
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Adipose Tissue
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B. Connective Tissues
2. Areolar Connective Tissue – is
loose connective tissue that
consists of a meshwork of
collagen, elastic tissue, and
reticular fibers - with many
connective tissue cells in between
the meshwork of fibers.
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B. Connective Tissues
2. Areolar Connective Tissue – is
found in many locations around the
body. One important area is the skin,
binds the outer layers of the skin to
the muscles beneath. Areolar tissue
is also found in or around mucous
membranes, and around blood
vessels, nerves, and the organs of
the body.
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B. Connective Tissues
2. Areolar Connective Tissue –
The key functions of areolar tissue
can be summarized as providing:
a. Support
b. Strength
c. Elasticity
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 Areolar Connective Tissue

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B. Connective Tissues
3. Cartilage – is a connective tissue
consisting of a dense matrix of
collagen fibers and elastic fibers
embedded in a rubbery ground
substance.
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The Cartilage
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B. Connective Tissues
4. Fibrous Tissue – composed of
bundles of collagenous white
fibers between which are rows of
connective tissue cells.
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B. Connective Tissues
4. Fibrous Tissue – are the tendons
which attach muscles to bones;
ligaments which bind bones
together at joints; and fasciae that
hold bundles of muscles together.
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Fibrous Tissue
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B. Connective Tissues
4. Bone or Osseous Tissue – is a
connective tissue in which the
intercellular substance is rendered
hard by being impregnated with
mineral salts, chiefly calcium
phosphate and calcium
carbonate.
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B. Connective Tissues
4. Bone or Osseous Tissue – bone
freed from inorganic matter is
called decalcified. Bone freed
from organic matter is white and
brittle and can be crushed with the
fingers.
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B. Connective Tissues
4. Bone or Osseous Tissue – has two
different types:
a) Compact bone is the hard outer surface
of bones.
b) Spongy bone is found under the layer of
compact bone. It is where blood vessels
and bone marrow especially in the long
bones and bones of the pelvis are
located.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that
composes muscles in animal bodies,
and gives rise to muscles' ability to
contract. This is opposed to other
components or tissues in muscle
such as tendons or perimysium.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
It is formed during embryonic
development through a process
known as myogenesis.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE is called
"striated" because of its
appearance consisting of light
and dark bands visible using a
light microscope.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
 The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
Functions:
a. Movement of the skeleton under
conscious control, including
movement of limbs, fingers, toes,
neck, etc.
b. Movement of tissues of facial
expression under conscious control,
e.g. ability to smile and to frown.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
 The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE – are striated,
branched (sometimes described as
Y-shaped), and have a single
central nucleus. These fibers are
attached at their ends to adjoining
fibers by thick plasma membranes
called intercalated discs.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
Functions:
a. Pumping of blood through the
heart: Alternate contraction
and relaxation of cardiac
muscle pumps.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
 The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
3. SMOOTH MUSCLE – is not striated,
muscle fibers are small and tapered
- with the ends reducing in size, in
contrast to the cylindrical shape of
skeletal muscle. Each smooth
muscle fiber has a single centrally
located nucleus.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
 The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
3. SMOOTH MUSCLE
Functions
Contractions of smooth muscle constrict
(i.e. narrow = reduce the diameter of)
the vessels they surround. This is
particularly important in the digestive
system in which the action of smooth
muscle helps to move food along the
gastrointestinal tract as well as breaking
the food down further.
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MUSCLE TISSUES
The 3 Types of Muscle Tissues:
3. SMOOTH MUSCLE
Functions:
Smooth muscle also contributes
to moving fluids through the body
and to the elimination of
indigestible matter from the
gastrointestinal system.
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 Cell Organization

NERVOUS TISSUES
 Or nerve tissue is the main tissue
component of the two parts of the
nervous system; the brain and spinal
cord of the central nervous system
(CNS), and the branching peripheral
nerves of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS), which regulates and
controls bodily functions and activity.
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Nervous Tissue
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NERVOUS TISSUES
 It is composed of neurons, or nerve
cells, which receive and transmit
impulses, and neuroglia, also known
as glial cells or more commonly as
just glia (from the Greek, meaning
glue), which assist the propagation
of the nerve impulse as well as
providing nutrients to the neuron.
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NERVOUS TISSUES
 Functions of the nervous system are
sensory input, integration, control of
muscles and glands, homeostasis,
and mental activity.
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Table 4.1 – Summary of Vertebrate Tissues

TISSUE TYPICAL LOCATION FUNCTION
A. Epithelial
lining of lungs, capillary
squamous diffusion
walls, and blood vessels
lining of some glands
secretion,
cuboidal and tubules; covering of
absorption
ovaries
surface lining of protection,
columnar stomach, intestines, and secretion,
parts of respiratory tract absorption
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Table 4.1 – Summary of Vertebrate Tissues

TISSUE TYPICAL LOCATION FUNCTION
B. Muscle
voluntary muscle of
skeletal voluntary movement
the body
rhythmic contractions
walls of blood vessels
smooth not under conscious
and intestines
control
beating / contraction
cardiac walls of the heart
of the heart
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Table 4.1 – Summary of Vertebrate Tissues

TISSUE TYPICAL LOCATION FUNCTION
C. Connective
skin, tendons, support, connections,
around muscles, enables tissues to
fibrous
kidney, liver, expand and return to
ligaments, lungs normal size
fat beneath skin and
insulation, food
on surface of heart
adipose storage, support of
and other internal
breasts and kidneys
organs
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Table 4.1 – Summary of Vertebrate Tissues

TISSUE TYPICAL LOCATION FUNCTION
C. Connective
spinal disks; knees, flexible, support, shock
cartilage joints, ears, nose, absorption, reduction
tracheal rings of friction
protection of internal
bone most of skeleton organs, rigid support for
muscle attachment
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Table 4.1 – Summary of Vertebrate Tissues

TISSUE TYPICAL LOCATION FUNCTION
D. NERVE
Eyes, ears, surface
Receives
sensory cell of skin, tongue,
information
nose
Nerves (optic,
signal-transmitting
auditory, tactile, Transmits signals
cells gustatory, olfactory
information- Integrates
processing cells information
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PLANT TISSUES
 Plants do have a higher level of
structure called plant tissue systems.
A plant tissue system can be defined
as a functional unit, which connects
all organs of a plant. Like animal
tissue system, plant tissue system is
also grouped into various tissues
based on their functions.
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Cell Organization
 Cell Organization

PLANT TISSUES
1. Dermal Tissue – The epidermis is a
dermal tissue that is usually a single
layer of cells covering the younger
parts of a plant.
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PLANT TISSUES
1. Dermal Tissue – It secretes a waxy
layer called the cuticle that inhibits
water loss. Some of the many types
of cells in the epidermis are shown
below.
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PLANT TISSUES
1. Dermal Tissue
a. Epidermis – is the outermost layer of the
primary plant body, which covers roots,
stems, leaves, floral parts, fruits and seeds.
b. Periderm is the corky outer layer of a plant
stem formed in secondary thickening or as
a response to injury or infection.
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PLANT TISSUES
2. Ground Tissue – conducts the basic
functions of photosynthesis, food
storage, and support.
a. Parenchyma – are the general cells of
plants, which are circular in shape and
have very thin wall. They are frequently
found in all roots, stem, leaves and in
fruits.
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PLANT TISSUES
2. Ground Tissue
a. Parenchyma
 help in synthesizing and storage of
synthesized food products.
 also controls plant's metabolism like
photosynthesis, respiration, protein
synthesis.
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PLANT TISSUES
2. Ground Tissue
b. Collenchyma – specialized
parenchyma tissue, elongated with
unevenly thickened walls.
 They are alive during the cell maturity;
controls the functions of young plants.
 Provided support to plants by not
restraining growth.
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PLANT TISSUES
2. Ground Tissue
b. Sclerenchyma – They are rigid,
non-living cells.
 They have thick, lignified secondary
walls and lack protoplasts at
maturity.
 They provide strength.
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PLANT TISSUES
3. Vascular Tissues
 Specialized
cells with transport of water,
hormone and minerals throughout the plant.
 Theycontain transfer cells, fibers in addition
to xylem, phloem, parenchyma, cambium
and other conducting cells.
 They are located in the veins of the Leaves.
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PLANT TISSUES
3. Vascular Tissues
1. Xylem – play a vital role in transporting
water and dissolved nutrients from the
roots to all parts of a plant.
 They transport the nutrients in the upward
direction .i.e. from the root to the stem,
leaves and flower.
 Xylem is also called as water-conducting
cells.
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PLANT TISSUES
3. Vascular Tissues
1. Phloem – are live cells, which lack nucleus
and other organelles.
 Theytransports dissolved organic food materials
(sugars) from the leaves to all parts of a plant.
 They transport the nutrients in the downward
direction .i.e. from the leaves to the different
parts of the plant.
 Phloem is also called as sugar-conducting cells.
Cell Organization