CHAPTER 3:

COORDINATION
AND RESPONSE
3.2 THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Made up of
1.The central nervous system
•Brain
•Spinal Cord

2.The peripheral nervous system

•Cranial nerve - branch from the brain
-connect brain to sensory and effector at the head

•Spinal nerve
-branch from the spinal cord
-connect the spinal cord to sensory and effector at the thorax,
abdomen, limbs
 THE HUMAN BRAIN
The brain function as a coordinating and
integrating centre:
• receive information from receptors
•analyse information
•integrate information
•store information
•transmit instruction to effectors
 SPINAL CORD
• Continuation of the medulla oblongata
• Located in the vertebral column
• Consists of a grey matter in the shape of H in
the middle and a white matter around it.
SPINAL CORD
 FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD:
1. It connects the peripheral nervous
system to the brain.
2. It acts as a minor integrating centre in
producing simple reflex responses such
as:
-the withdrawal of the hand from a hot
object
 NEURONE

• The nervous system is made up of

millions of nerve cells called
neurones.
• Neurones transmit nerve
impulses to other nerve cells,
glands or muscles.
 DENDRITES

CELL BODY

NUCLEUS

MYELIN
SHEATH
 AFFERENT NEURONE
CARRY SENSORY
INFORMATION FROM
RECEPTOR CELL TO THE BRAIN
AND SPINAL CORD
 TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION
ALONG THE NEURONE
• Nerve impulses is carried along the
neurones in the form of electrical
impulse.
-Travels in one direction from dendrites
to axon terminals.
• Begins at the receptors and ends at the
effectors.
 TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION
ALONG THE NEURONE
1. Receptor detects the stimulus.
2. Nerve impulses are carried by the afferent
neurone to the central nervous system.
3. The central nervous system integrates and
interpret the information.
4. The central nervous system send nerve
impulses – carried by the efferent neurone to
the effector.
5. Effector produce response.
• Neurones are not directly connected – there is
a gap called synapse.
• Synapse – between axon terminal with the
dendrite of another neurone.
- Contains a lot of mitochondria and vesicles
containing neurotransmitters (acetylcoline &
noradrenaline)
• Nerve impulse arrive at axon terminal (synaptic
knob)
• 2. Nerve impulse stimulates the vesicles to
release neurotransmitters.
• 3. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse
to the subsequent dendrite.
• 4. Energy required is supplied by the
mitochondria
• 5. Dendrite is stimulated, and will pass the
impulse
 VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
• Controlled by the cerebrum of the brain.
• Involves the process of integration and
interpretation of information to produce
response.
• Example : kick a ball
• Sight of the ball stimulates the receptor in the
eye – information will be sent to the cerebrum
• The information about the ball is interpreted in
the motor area of the brain – sent to the skeletal
muscle of the leg to produce a response, that is
to kick the ball.
• Automatic action – not controlled by the will
of an individual
• Controlled by medulla oblongata
-e.g peristalsis, heartbeat, breathing
-We are not aware of the responses
• Autonomic nervous system – regulates
internal body process
 REFLEX ACTION
• Reflex Arc – pathway that a nerve impulse travels
from the receptor to the effector
• Consists of receptor, afferent neurone,
interneurone in the spinal cord, efferent neurone
and effector.
• Examples
• Withdrawal of the hand from a hot object;
involves three neurones; afferent neurone,
interneurone, efferent neurone
• Knee jerk; involves two neurones; afferent
neurone, efferent neurone
 WITHDRAWAL OF HAND FROM HOT
OBJECT
• When the hand touch a hot object, receptors are
stimulated
• Impulses is generated – travels along afferent
neurone to the spinal cord
• Impulse travels to an interneurone – then
transmitted to another synapse of the efferent
neurone.
• Impulse in carried to the muscle.
• Also involve other neurones in the brain – enable
the person to feel the sensation of heat and pain
 3.3 THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN
HUMANS
• Endocrine system – release hormones to regulates
physiological process e.g growth, reproduction,
metabolism, mentrual cycle, development of
secondary sexual characteristics
• Consists of endocrine glands which secretes hormones
• Hormones – chemical substances that regulates the
activities of organs and tissues
• Endocrine glands do not have ducts – hormones
released into the bloodstream
• Blood will carry the hormones throughout the body to
targeted organs, tissues and cells.
 REGULATION OF HORMONE
SECRETION
1. Secretion of hormone regulated by another
hormone
•Release of thyroxine is regulated by thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH)
•High level of thyroxine inhibits the release of
TSH
• Low level of thyroxine stimulates the secretion
of TSH and then stimulates the thyroid glands to
produce thyroxine
2. Secretion of hormone regulated by the level of certain
substances
•High level of glucose in blood stimulated pancreas to
secretes insulin
• Low level of glucose in blood triggers the secretion of
glucagon
3. Secretion of hormones regulated by nervous system
•Hypothalamus receive nerve impulse from receptors
• Then stimulated pituitary glands to release hormone
• Adrenal glands are also stimulated by the nervous
system
• There are also coordination that involve both nervous
and endocrine system e.g when a person is being
attacked by a dog
1. Eyes detect stimuli (dog)
2. Nerve impulse in sent to the brain
3. Brain send nerve impulse to adrenal glands
4. Adrenal glands produce adrenaline
5. Adrenaline increase heartbeat rate, breathing rate,
blood pressure, blood glucose level
6. Increase metabolic rate, that produce extra energy to
either “fight” or “flight”
 THE USES OF HORMONES IN
MEDICINE
1. Growth hormones – treat dwarfism.
2. Insulin – treat patients with diabetes melitus
3. Oestrogen – treat problem related to
development of secondary sexual
characteristics, menstrual cycle
4. Progesterone – maintain lining of uterus,
prevent miscarriage
• Plays an important role in homeostasis
• Kidney is the primary organ
• Kidney cortex
medulla
• Functional unit – nephron Glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule
Renal Tubule
Structure of Glomerulus
NEPHRON
 FORMATION OF URINE
• 1. Ultrafiltration – in the glomerulus
• 2. Reabsorption
• 3. Secretion
ULTRAFILTRATION
REABSORPTION & SECRETION
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• Homeostasis is achieved by negative feedback
mechanism
• Negative feedback mechanism- brings a
change in a system back to normal
• Positive feedback mechanism- makes a
situation more intense
 KIDNEY IN HOMEOSTASIS
• Osmoregulation – achieved by regulating the
vol. of urine production & excretion from the
kidney.
• Hormone: ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)
• Blood osmotic pressure when a person
sweats too much
REGULATION OF BLOOD OSMOTIC
PRESSURE
Osmoreceptors – Adrenal glands-
Blood osmotic less stimulated. stimulated to
pressure Pituitary gland- less release
stimulated so less Adolsterone – DCT
ADH is secreted absorb more salt

This results in an So, less water is

increase in blood reabsorbed from Low ADH causes
osmotic pressure and filtrate into blood. DST and collecting
return it to normal. Urine contains duct to be less
more water (dilute) permeable to
and lighter in water.
colour.
 HAEMODIALYSIS
• A process of filtering blood by using an
artificial means to replace the function of
damaged kidney.
• Takes 6 hours and a patient need to do it 3
times per week.
 REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
LEVEL
• Organ: Pancreas
• Islet cells β-cells insulin

α- cells Glucagon
• Defect in insulin production – DIABETES
MELLITUS
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
 TYPES OF DRUGS & EFFECTS
TYPE OF DRUGS EFFECTS

STIMULANTS • increase CNS activity

• Excessive use can cause ecstacy
that soon followed by depression.
DEPRESSANTS • Slow down the activity of CNS
• Slow down transmission of nerve
imp. (tranquilisers)
HALLUCINOGENS • Cause a person to hallucinate

NARCOTICS (heroin and morphine) • Induce ecstacy feelings

• Block pain signals
• Slow down normal brain functions
 PLANT HORMONES
• For growth promote cell elongation
development in apical meristem
• Hormones auxin used in parthenocarpy

Ethylene synthesised during ripening of fruit

speed up ripening of fruits

break down complex carbohydrates

 Auxin
• In shoot- Auxin build up in the region of shade
& cause cell elongation in the shade region.
• In roots – Auxin inhibit cell elongation.
THE END

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