CHAPTER VII:

MODELS OF POLITICS:

Michelle G. de los Santos

MPRM
Chapter Outline

A. Models for Policy Analysis

B. Institutionalism : Policy as Institutional Output
C. Process: Policy as political Process
D. Rationalism: Policy as Maximum Social Gain
E. Incrementalism: Policy as Variation in the Past
F. Group Theory : Policy as Group Equilibrium
G. Elite Theory : Policy as Elite Preference
Chapter Outline

H. Laswell’s Policy Approach

I. Easton’s Model of Policy Analysis
J. Lindblom’s Incremental Model
K. Dror’s Normative – Optimum Model of Policy Making
L. Etzioni’s Mixed Scanning Approach
M. Anderson’s Framework of Policy Process
MODELS

• model is a working intellectual construct by which social or

physical situations, realer hypothetical, can be represented

• the mental image of world around you which you carry in

your head is model. a mental image is model

• a model is simplified representation of some aspect of real

world
 POLICY ANALYSIS

IT INVOLVES :

1. a primary concern with explanation rather than prescription

2. a rigorous search for the causes and consequences of
public policies
3. an effort to develop and test general propositions about
the causes and consequences of public policy and
to accumulate reliable research findings of general
relevance
 POLICY ANALYSIS

• policy analysis is a systematic and data

based alternative to intuitive judgments about the effects
of policy and policy options

• policy analysis as the “thinking man's response” to demands

MODELS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS

• In public policy analysis we focus on choices in the public

sector, on how decisions should be made by nonprofit
institutions.
• MODELS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS

• The fundamental choice model is particularly valuable

because it offers a universal yet succinct way of looking
the problems in terms of two primary elements of any act
of choice.
• The alternatives available to the decision maker
• His preferences among these alternatives.
• MODELS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS

The models we shall use in studying policy are conceptual

models. Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and
public policy identify important aspects of policy problems.
Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its
consequences
 INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT

• This approach did not devote much attention to the linkages

between structure of the government Institutions and content
of Public Policy
• It was assumed that changes in structure will effect policy
contents
• The reality is that both structure and policy are largely
determined by social and economic forces
 INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT

The relationship between public policy and government

institutions is very close. Strictly speaking, a policy does not
become a public policy until it is adopted, implemented, and
enforced by some government institution. Government
institutions give public policy three distinctive characteristics.
 INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT

First, government lends legitimacy to policies. Government policies

are generally regarded as legal obligations that command the
loyalty of citizens.
Second , government policies involve universality
only government policies extend to all people in a society; the
policies of other groups or organizations reach only a part of
the society.
Finally, government monopolizes coercion
in society, only government can legitimately imprison violators of
its policies.
 • INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT

• This institutional approach has become one of the themes of

public policy analysis and it studies the interactions of
institutions created by the government, legislature and the
constitution e. g. Members of Parliament, Prime Minister or
Cabinet etc. The influence exercised by all these institutions
goes a long way in shaping the public policy.
 • INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT

• Traditionally the institutional approach focused just on the

study of structures and institutions of government and did not
devote attention to the linkages between these
governmental institutions and the public policies. But now it
has within its ambit the impact of these institutions on the
content of public policy and the decision making.
CRIQUE OF INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH

• The importance of institutional approach to policy analysis

lies in analyzing the relationship between the governmental
institutions and the content of public policy. However it
cannot be mentioned that the public policies will be
affected by institutions independent of the environmental
factors e. g. environmental factors may change so that the
changes in the structures of governmental institutions have
little effect on the content of public policy.
 PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY

The policy process normally starts when a policy issue or problem

is identified
by one or more stakeholders in society who feel that the actions
of the government detrimentally affect them or another segment
of society. They then mobilise support to persuade policy – makers
to do something in order to change the status of in their favour
 PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY

Stages in the process

• Problem Identification
• Policy Formulation
• Policy Legitimation
• Policy Implementation
• Policy Evaluation
 PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY

• Problem Identification: The first step and the most important

step in the public policy process is the identification of the
issue or problem that needs to be addressed or resolved.

• Policy Formulation: This means coming up with an approach

to solving a problem. Policy-planning agencies, the
executive branch, the legislature, bureaucrats, political
parties and interest groups may be involved in this stage of
the policy process.
 PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY

• Policy Legitimation: The selection and endorsement of

policies through political actions by Congress, the president,
and the courts.

• Policy Implementation: The next obvious step after choosing

an option would be implemented the solution. Various
government agencies would be involved in the
implementing the policies decided.
 • PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY

• Policy Evaluation: This is the final stage in the public policy

process. Evaluation is an on going or continuous process. It
involves study or review of how effective the new policy has
been in resolving the original problem.
 • PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY

• this model criticized for being linear and simplistic. in real

world stages of policy process may overlap or never happen
“THE TERM PUBLIC POLICY ALWAYS REFERS
TO THE ACTIONS OF GOVERNMENT AND
THE INTENSIONS AND COMMITMENT THAT
DETERMINE THOSE ACTIONS.”
--CLARKE E. COCHRAN, ET AL.