Data Processing

Data processing refers to certain operations such as editing,

coding, computing of the scores, preparation of master charts, etc.
A researcher has to make his plan for each and every stage of the
research process.
 PROCESSING OF DATA
The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to
come to some conclusions or to verify the hypothesis
made.
Processing of data is important as it makes further analysis of
data easier and efficient. Processing of data technically
means
1. Editing of the data
2. Coding of data
3. Classification of data
4. Tabulation of data.
EDITING :
EDITING The process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed
questionnaires for omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying them for
coding and storage.

Purpose of Editing :
Purpose of Editing For consistency between and among responses. For
completeness in responses– to reduce effects of item non-response. To better
utilize questions answered out of order. To facilitate the coding process

Basic Principles of Editing:

1. Checking of the no. of Schedules / Questionnaire)
2. Completeness (Completed in filling of questions) 3
3. Legibility.
4. To avoid Inconstancies in answers.
5. To Maintain Degree of Uniformity.
6. To Eliminate Irrelevant Responses.
 EDITING:
Data editing is a process by which collected data is
examined to detect any errors or omissions and further
these are corrected as much as possible before
proceeding further.

Editing is of two types:

1. Field Editing
2. Central Editing.
FIELD EDITING:
This is a type of editing that relates to abbreviated or illegible
written form of gathered data. Such editing is more effective
when done on same day or the very next day after the
interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
CENTRAL EDITING:
Such type of editing relates to the time when all data
collection process has been completed. Here a single or
common editor corrects the errors like entry in the wrong
place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c. As a rule all the wrong
answers should be dropped from the final results.
 EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:

• Editor must be familiar with the interviewer’s mind set, objectives and
everything related to the study.
• Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data
collected.
• They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
• The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data
sheet.
CODING :
CODING The process of identifying and classifying each answer with
a numerical score or other character symbol. The numerical score or
symbol is called a code, and serves as a rule for interpreting,
classifying, and recording data. Identifying responses with codes is
necessary if data is to be processed by computer.

Coded data is often stored electronically in the form of a data

matrix - a rectangular arrangement of the data into rows
(representing cases) and columns (representing variables)

The data matrix is organized into fields, records, and files:

Field: A collection of characters that represents a single type of data.
Record: A collection of related fields, i.e., fields related to the same
case (or respondent)
File: A collection of related records, i.e. records related to the same
sample
 CODING:
Classification of responses may be done on the basis of
one or more common concepts.
In coding a particular numeral or symbol is assigned to the
answers in order to put the responses in some definite
categories or classes.
The classes of responses determined by the researcher
should be appropriate and suitable to the study.
Coding enables efficient and effective analysis as the
responses are categorized into meaningful classes.
Coding decisions are considered while developing or
designing the questionnaire or any other data collection tool.
Coding can be done manually or through computer.
Code Book Construction: Code design /Coding Frame –
It describes the locations of variables and lists of code assignments to the
attributes composing those variables
It serves two essential functions:
It is primary guide used in the coding process.
It is the guide for locating variables and interpreting the columns in data
file during analysis.

EXAMPLE :
. EXAMPLE Que;
Which magazines do you read?
1. Hindustan Times
2. business standard
3. economic times
4. the Hindu
5. the times of India
 CLASSIFICATION:
 Classification of the data implies that the collected raw
data is categorized into common group having common
feature.
 Data having common characteristics are placed in a
common group.
 The entire data collected is categorized into various groups
or classes, which convey a meaning to the researcher.
Classification is done in two ways:
1. Classification according to attributes.
2. Classification according to the class intervals.
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING THE THE ATTRIBUTES:
Here the data is classified on the basis of common
characteristics that can be descriptive like literacy, sex,
honesty, marital status e.t.c. or numeral like weight, height,
income e.t.c.
Descriptive features are qualitative in nature and cannot be
measured quantitatively but are kindly considered while
making an analysis.
Analysis used for such classified data is known as statistics
of attributes and the classification is known as the
classification according to the attributes.
 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THE INTERVAL:
The numerical feature of data can be measured quantitatively
and analyzed with the help of some statistical unit like the
data relating to income, production, age, weight e.t.c.
come under this category. This type of data is known as
statistics of variables and the data is classified by way of
intervals.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE CLASS
INTERVAL USUALLY INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING
THREE MAIN PROBLEMS:
1. Number of Classes.
2. How to select class limits.
3. How to determine the frequency of each class.
TABULATION
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical table) for further analysis

When mass data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher
to arrange the same in some kind of concise logical order, which may be called
tabulation.
 TABULATION:
The mass of data collected has to be arranged in some kind of
concise and logical order.
Tabulation summarizes the raw data and displays data in form
of some statistical tables.
Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and
columns.
OBJECTIVE OF TABULATION:
1. Conserves space & minimizes explanation and descriptive
statements.
2. Facilitates process of comparison and summarization.
3. Facilitates detection of errors and omissions.
4. Establish the basis of various statistical computations.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION:
1. Tables should be clear, concise & adequately titled.
2. Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy
reference.
3. Column headings & row headings of the table should be
clear & brief.
4. Units of measurement should be specified at appropriate
places.
5. Explanatory footnotes concerning the table should be
placed at appropriate places.
6. Source of information of data should be clearly indicated.
7. The columns & rows should be clearly separated with
dark lines
8. Demarcation should also be made between data of one
class and that of another.
9. Comparable data should be put side by side.
10. The figures in percentage should be approximated before
tabulation.
11. The alignment of the figures, symbols etc. should be
properly aligned and adequately spaced to enhance the
readability of the same.
12. Abbreviations should be avoided.
Advantages of Tabulation: :
Advantages of Tabulation: 1. It simplifies complex data. 2. It facilitates
comparison. 3. It facilitates computation. 4. It presents facts in minimum
possible space. 5. Tabulated data are good for references and they make
it easier to present the information in the form of graphs and diagrams.

Preparing a Table: :
Preparing a Table: Table number. Title of the table. Captions or column
headings. Stubs or row designation. Body of the table. Foot notes.
Sources of data.

Requirements of a Good Table: :

Requirements of a Good Table: statistical enquiry. easily understandable.
suit the size of the paper. Rows and columns in a table should be
numbered. The arrangements of rows and columns should be in a logical
The rows and columns are separated by lines.
Type of Tables:
Simple or one-way table
Two way table
Manifold table
 Pilot studies
The importance of pilot studies

The term 'pilot studies' refers to mini versions of a full-scale study (also called
'feasibility' studies), as well as the specific pre-testing of a particular research
instrument such as a questionnaire or interview schedule.

Pilot studies are a crucial element of a good study design. Conducting a pilot study
does not guarantee success in the main study, but it does increase the
likelihood.

Pilot studies fulfil a range of important functions and can provide valuable insights for
other researchers.

In the words of De Vaus (1993: 54) "Do

not take the risk. Pilot test first."
Pilot study is to be carried out in the actual setting in which the main study will be
conducted.

should use the actual procedures proposed for the main study, including such things
as obtaining informed consent. It should use the same type of participants.

a researcher should incorporate at least one pilot study in the research plan of any
substantial study
One major purpose of a pilot study is to assess the feasibility of the main study so that
you can correct any problems.
A pilot study will allow you to assess whether your study design is adequate.

You can see whether the methodology is going to work.

You can evalu-ate such things as the recruitment of participants, the sampling
technique, the appropriate-ness and effectiveness of the procedures, the timeframe
and the costs.

You can also see whether the instruments are going to work, and if not, choose an
alternative
 ANALYSIS OF DATA

The important statistical measures that are used to analyze

the research or the survey are:
1. Measures of central tendency(mean, median & mode)
2. Measures of dispersion(standard deviation, range, mean
deviation)
3. Measures of asymmetry(skew ness)
4. Measures of relationship etc.( correlation and regression)
5. Association in case of attributes.
6. Time series Analysis
 TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS
Several factor are considered into the determination of the
appropriate statistical technique to use when conducting a
hypothesis tests. The most important are as:
1. The type of data being measured.
2. The purpose or the objective of the statistical inference.

Hypothesis can be tested by various techniques. The

hypothesis testing techniques are divided into two broad
categories:
1. Parametric Tests.
2. Non- Parametric Tests.
 PARAMETRIC TESTS:

These tests depends upon assumptions typically that the

population(s) from which data are randomly sampled
have a normal distribution. Types of parametric tests are:

1. t- test
2. z- test
3. F- test
4. 2- test
 NON PARAMETRIC TESTS
The various types of Non Parametric Tests are:
1. Wilcox on Signed Rank Test ( for comparing two
population)
2. Kolmogorov Smirnov Test( to test whether or not the
sample of data is consistent with a specified distribution
function)
3. Runs Tests (in studies where measurements are made
according to some well defined ordering, either in time or
space, a frequent question is whether or not the average
value of the measurement is different points in the
sequence. This test provides a means of testing this.
4. Sign Test (this is single sample test that can be used
instead of the single sample t- test or paired t- test.
 INTERPRETATION:
Interpretation is the relationship amongst the collected data,
with analysis. Interpretation looks beyond the data of the
research and includes researches, theory and hypothesis.
Interpretation in a way act as a tool to explain the
observations of the researcher during the research period
and it acts as a guide for future researches.
WHY Interpretation?
-the researcher understands the abstract principle underlying
the findings.
-Interpretation links up the findings with those of other similar
studies.
-The researcher is able to make others understand the real
importance of his research findings.
 PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION:
1. Researcher must ensure that the data is appropriate, trust
worthy and adequate for drawing inferences.
2. Researcher must be cautious about errors and take due
necessary actions if the error arises
3. Researcher must ensure the correctness of the data
analysis process whether the data is qualitative or
quantitative.
4. Researcher must try to bring out hidden facts and un
obvious factors and facts to the front and combine it with
the factual interpretation.
5. The researcher must also ensure that there should be
constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical
observations, and theoretical concepts.