RETAINING WALLS

RETAINING WALL
 Retaining walls are used to retain earth
or other materials which have the
tendency to slide and repose at a
particular inclination.
 They provide lateral support to the
earthfill, embankments or other
materials in order to hold them in a
vertical position.
 Retaining walls also have application
in buildings and bridges such as
basement, foundation wall, bridge
abutment etc.
The primary geotechnical concern in design and
installation of retaining walls is that the
retained material is attempting to move forward
and down slope due to gravity.
This creates soil pressure behind the wall, which
can be analysed based on the angle of internal
friction (φ) and the cohesive strength (c) of the
material and the amount of allowable movement
of the wall.
This pressure is smallest at the top and increases
toward the bottom in a manner similar to
hydraulic pressure, and tends to push the wall
forward and overturn it.
Groundwater behind the wall that is not
dissipated by a drainage system causes an
additional horizontal hydraulic pressure on the
wall.
STRUCTURE OF RETAINING WALLS
(1) Base
(2) Heel and Toe
(3) Stem
(4) Batter: the outer face of the wall which is built
inward to prevent the wall tipping over.
(5) Backfill: The material placed behind a retaining
wall.
 COMMON MATERIALS USED FOR
RETAINING WALLS :
 Wood sheets
 Steel and plastic interlocking sheets
 Reinforced concrete sheets
 Precast concrete elements (crib walls and block walls)
 Closely spaced in-situ soil-cement piles
 Wire-mesh boxes (gabions)
 Anchors into the soil or rock mass (soil nailing)
EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING
WALL
The effect of 2 forms of earth pressure need to
be considered during the process of designing
the retaining wall that is:
 Active Earth Pressure
“ It is the pressure that at all times are tending
to move or overturn the retaining wall”
 Passive Earth Pressure
“It is reactionary pressures that will react in
the form of a resistance to movement of the
wall.
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
 The active state occurs when a soil mass is allowed to relax
or move outward to the point of reaching the limiting
strength of the soil; that is, the soil is at the failure
condition in extension.
 Thus it is the minimum lateral soil pressure that may be
exerted.
 It is composed of the earth wedge being retained together
with any hydrostatic pressure caused by the presence of
groundwater.
 This pressure can be reduced by:
 The use of subsoil drainage behind the wall
 Inserting drainage openings called weep holes through the
thickness of the stem to enable the water to drain away.
PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
 The passive state occurs when a soil mass is
externally forced to the limiting strength (that is,
failure) of the soil in compression.
 It is the maximum lateral soil pressure that may be
exerted.
 This pressure build up in front of the toe to resist
the movement of the wall if it tries to move forward.
 This pressure can be increased by enlarging the
depth of the toe or by forming a rib on the
underside of the base.
IN SITU WALLS
SHEET PILE WALLS
 Used to build continuous walls for waterfront structures and
for temporary construction wall heights > 6 m if used with
anchors.
 Can be made of steel, plastics, wood, pre-cast concrete.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Provides higher resistance to driving stresses;
2. Is of an overall lighter weight;
3. Can be reused on several projects;
4. Provides a long service life above or below the water table;
5. Easy to adapt the pile length by either welding or bolting;
6. Their joints are less apt to deform during driving.
Soldier Piles and Lagging Walls

 This type of wall was known to Roman military

engineers, and was used for deep excavations.
 It is a relatively inexpensive system, easy and fast to
construct.
 It is primarily limited to temporary construction, and
cannot be used in high water table conditions without
extensive dewatering and expense.
 Slurry Walls
 A slurry wall refers to the method of construction. Specifically, the
digging of a deep trench with a special bucket and crane.
 As the trench becomes deeper, the soil is prevented from collapsing into
the trench by keeping the hole filled with a “slurry”.
 This slurry is a mixture of water with bentonite
 The bentonite makes the slurry thick, but liquid. This keeps the soil
lateral walls from collapsing into the excavation.
 When the excavation reaches the intended depth, the slurry filled
excavation is reinforced with steel and carefully filled with concrete.
 These walls have been built to 100 foot depths and range from 2 feet to 4
feet in thickness.
 The panels are typically 15 feet to 25 feet long, and are linked with one
another through tongue and groove type seals (to prevent the intrusion of
groundwater into the future underground site.
 Slurry walls have the advantage of being stiffer than sheet pile walls,
and hold back the soil better than soldier piles, lagging and steel
sheeting.
Secant Pile Walls
 These walls are formed by the intersection of individual
reinforced concrete piles.
 These piles are built by using drilling mud (bentonite) and
augering.
 The secant piles overlap by about 3 inches.
 An alternative are the tangent pile walls, where the piles do not
have any overlap. These piles are constructed flush with each
other.
 The important advantage of secant and tangent walls is the
increased alignment flexibility.
 The walls also may have increased stiffness, and the
construction process is less noisy.
 The disadvantage is that waterproofing is difficult to obtain at
the joints, their higher cost, and that vertical tolerances are
hard to achieve for the deeper piles.
GRAVITY WALLS
GRAVITY RETAINING WALL
 A gravity wall is made of plain concrete or brick masonry.
 The stability of the wall is maintained by its weight.
 It is generally made up to a height of 3 m of wall.
 Gravity walls are the earliest known retaining structures.
 They are built from solid concrete or rock rubble mortared together.
 The lateral forces from backfill is resisted by the weight of wall
itself, and due to their massive nature, they develop little or no
tension. Therefore, they are usually not reinforced with steel.
A GRAVITY WALL
CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
 It consists of a vertical wall,
heal slab and a toe slab which
act as cantilever beams.
 Its stability is maintained by
the weight of the retaining wall
and the weight of the earth on
the base of the retaining wall.
 It is generally made when the
height of the earth on the base
is in the range of 3 m to 8 m.
COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL
 When the height of retaining wall is more than 6-8m, it is
economical to tie the vertical wall with the heel slab by counter
forts at some spacing.
 The counterforts act as tension members to support the vertical
wall and reduces bending moment in it.
 It also provides support to heel slab.
 Generally, counterforts are spaced at approximately one-third of
the height of wall.
COUNTERFORT
RETAINING WALL
BUTTRESS RETAINING WALL

 It is similar to counter fort wall except that

the vertical wall is tied with the toe of the
retaining wall at some spacing.
 It acts as a compression member to support
the vertical wall and reduces bending
moment in it.
CRIB WALLS

 Crib walls are made up of interlocking individual boxes

made from timber or pre-cast concrete.
 The boxes are then filled with crushed stone or other coarse
granular materials to create a free draining structure.
 There are two basic types of crib wall:
- Timber, and
- Reinforced pre-cast concrete.
 GABBION WALLS
 Gabbions are multi-celled, welded wire or rectangular wire mesh
boxes, which are then rockfilled, and used for construction of
erosion control structures and to stabilize steep slopes.
 Their applications include,
- Retaining walls,
- Bridge abutments,
-Wing walls,
- Culvert headwalls,
- Outlet aprons,
- Shore and beach protection walls, and
- Temporary check dams.
MECHANICALLY STABILISED EARTH
 Mechanically stabilized earth or MSE is soil
constructed with artificial reinforcing.
 It can be used for retaining walls, bridge abutments,
dams, seawalls, and dikes.
 Although the basic principles of MSE has been used
throughout history, MSE was developed in its current
form in the 1960s.
 The reinforcing elements used can vary but include
steel and geosynthetics.
MSE

 Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining walls

combine geosynthetic-reinforced earth layers (such as
geogrids) and a fascia of geocell, wire mesh or concrete
blocks to create high-strength, versatile earth retention
systems.
 The geogrid reinforces the soil while the fascia protects
the wall face.
 The versatility of MSE walls makes them suitable for
a variety of applications, from road structures to golf
courses.
 Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Walls Facing
 There are several facing systems used with mechanically stabilized earth
systems. Some of the common facing options are:
 Segmental precast concrete panels- Precast panels in the form of
square, rectangle, diamond or hexagon, connected with shear pins.
 Modular block wall – Solid or with cores filled with aggregates during
their installation. Usually name Keystone, Versa-Lok, etc.
 Metallic Facings – lighter facing finished, made of galvanized steel
split into half cylinders.
 Gabion Facing- can be connected to the wall systems.
 Geosynthetic Facing- Geotextile reinforcement, forming the face of the
retaining wall. They can be exposed to vandalism, weather inclemency
and other types of surfacing problems.
 Post construction Facing – Shot Crete, cast-in place, spray on,
plastering or other techniques can also be used as a compliment facing
for the mechanically stabilized earth wall facing. It adds some cost to
the construction but will provide an aesthetic finish surface for the
MSE walls.
REINFORMENT IN MSE
 The reinforcement materials of MSE can vary.
 Originally, long steel strips 50 to 120 mm (2 to
5 in) wide were used as reinforcement. These strips
are sometimes ribbed, although not always, to
provide added friction.
 Steel grids or meshes are also used as reinforcement.
 Several types of geosynthetics can be used
including geogrids and geotextiles. The reinforcing
geosynthetics can be made of high density
polyethylene, polyester, and polypropylene.
 ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICALLY
STABILISED RETAINING WALLS
 Simple construction.
 The use of heavy equipment is reduced.
 Faster construction than traditional concrete walls.
 Do not require specialized labor.
 Reduces the need for wall finishing.
 Less site prep is needed.
 Can be built in confined areas or areas where a concrete wall is almost
impossible to be constructed.
 Mechanically Stabilized Earth walls are susceptible to elastic
deformation.
 High seismic load resistance.
 MSE walls can be used as tall structures, exceeding more than 60 feet of
wall height.
 Can be combined with other products.
 Various shapes and forms can be made.
 DISADVANTAGES OF MSE
 Require a relatively large space behind the wall or outward face to
obtain enough wall width for internal and external stability.
 MSEW require select granular fill. (At sites where there is a lack
of granular soils, the cost of importing suitable fill material may
render the system uneconomical).
 Requirements for RSS are typically less restrictive.
 Suitable design criteria are required to address corrosion of steel
reinforcing elements, deterioration of certain types of exposed
facing elements such as geosynthetics by ultra violet rays, and
potential degradation of polymer reinforcement in the ground.
 Since design and construction practice of all reinforced systems
are still evolving, specifications and contracting practices have not
been fully standardized.
WHAT IS GEOSYNTHETIC…?
 Geosynthetics is the term used to describe a range of
generally polymeric products used to solve civil
engineering problems.
 The term is generally regarded to encompass eight main
product
categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, ge
osynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells (cellular
confinement) and geocomposites.
 The polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable
for use in the ground where high levels of durability are
required.
 These products have a wide range of applications and are
currently used in many civil, geotechnical, transportation,
geoenvironmental,hydraulic, and
private development applications.
TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS USED FOR SOIL
REINFORCEMENT
 Geotextiles (particularly woven geotextiles), geogrids and geocells.
Geotextiles are continuous sheets of woven, nonwoven, knitted or
stitch-bonded fibres or yarns.
 The sheets are flexible and permeable and generally have the
appearance of a fabric.
 Geogrids have a uniformly distributed array of apertures between
their longitudinal and transverse elements. These apertures allow
direct contact between soil particles on either side of the sheet.
 Geocells are relatively thick, three-dimensional networks
constructed from strips of polymeric sheet. The strips are
joined together to form interconnected cells that are in filled
with soil and sometimes concrete. In some cases 0.5 m to 1
m wide strips of polyolefin geogrids have been linked
together with vertical polymeric rods used to form deep
geocells layers called geomattresses.
 In-Situ Walls

 These walls do not rely on their mass to retain the soil.

 They rely on their flexural strengths to retain the soil.
 They are supported by penetration into the soil or by
anchoring systems.
 For example, soil nailing.
 Soil nailing

 Soil nailing is a technique whereby in-situ soil is

reinforced by the insertion of steel rods, 20–30 mm in
diameter,
 However, because of the possible corrosion of steel bars,
reinforcement coatings with high resistance to
corrosion are being developed and fibre-glass nails
have been used recently .
 The technique is employed to enhance the performance
of granular soils and stiff clays.
BASEMENT / FOUNDATION WALL

 Retaining wall restrained at the

bottom by the basement floor slab
and at the top by the first floor slab is known as
basement wall.
 It is subjected to lateral earth pressure exerted by earth
fill and the vertical load from the super structure.
 The lateral support to the basement wall is provided by
the basement floor and first floor slabs.
BRIDGE RETAINING WALL

 Its behaviour is similar to that of the basement

or foundation wall.
 The bridge superstructure induces horizontal
as well as vertical loads that alter the normal
cantilever behaviour.
ADVANCEMENTS IN
RETAINING WALL
MSE PRECAST
PANEL RETAINING
WALL

 Reinforced Earth retaining walls are coherent gravity

structures consisting of alternating layers of
granular backfill and high-strength, inextensible
discrete steel strip soil reinforcement with a modular
precast concrete facing.
 They are used extensively in highway projects for
retaining walls and bridge abutments, in seawalls,
dams, bulk storage facilities, and in supporting
various types of railway transit.
Retained Earth – MSE Precast
Panel Retaining Wall
 Retained Earth retaining walls are coherent gravity
structures consisting of alternating layers of
granular backfill and high-strength, inextensible,
high-adherence welded wire bar mat soil reinforcement
with a modular precast concrete facing.
 They are used extensively in highway projects for
retaining walls and bridge abutments, in seawalls,
dams, bulk storage facilities, and in supporting
various types of railway transit.
Terratrel– MSE Wire
Faced Retaining Wall

 Terratrel is a wire-faced MSE wall system that combines the

technology of Reinforced Earth and Retained Earth with the
economy of wire facing.
 The system provides a cost-effective alternative for wall applications
where aesthetics are not critical, a temporary retaining structure is
required or differential and overall settlement exceeds the limits for
a one-stage precast panel MSE wall.
 The Terratrel system can be designed to utilize discrete steel strip,
welded wire bar mat or high-tenacity polyester based geostrap soil
reinforcements.
TechSpan – Precast
Arch
 TechSpan is a state-of-the-art three-hinged
precast arch system which can be used in
conjunction with The Reinforced Earth MSE
products.
 It used for the construction of bridges, culverts,
rail and roadway tunnels, mining and
industrial tunnels and undercrossings.
 Advanced design procedures and unique
fabrication capabilities provide the most efficient
use of concrete and steel.
GeoMega– MSE Precast
Panel Retaining Wall
 GeoMega retaining walls are coherent gravity structures
consisting of alternating layers of granular backfill and
a high-tenacity polyester based geostrap soil reinforcement
with a modular precast concrete facing.
 The Omega strip consists of high tenacity polyester fibers
encased in a polyethylene sheath which makes it ideal for
use in the construction of walls in where sea water or other
chemically aggressive environments preclude the use of
galvanized steel soil reinforcements.
Piano Wall – MSE Precast
Retaining Wall with Traffic Barrier
 Piano Wall is a MSE wall system which combines the
technology of a Reinforced Earth retaining wall topped
with an integral traffic barrier in a single engineered
unit.
 This unique solution was developed for projects that
require a Jersey-type traffic barrier atop a five- to ten-
foot high Reinforced Earth retaining wall.
 It is ideal for projects requiring low-height grade
separations adjacent to bi-level roadways.
TechWall - Precast
Counter fort
Retaining Wall
 TechWall is a full height panel which combines a
precast counter fort and wall facing into one unit.
 When the traditional design advantages and
benefits of a typical counter fort retaining wall are
recommended due to items such as a severe right-of-
way restriction, large utility conflict, construction
in cut conditions, and roadway widening TechWall
is an effective solution which encompasses the
quality and efficiency of precast concrete.
Fan wall - Noise wall /
Protective Barrier
 Fan wall is a precast modular permanent barrier wall
system which can be a freestanding trapezoidal structure
or where right-of-way is minimal, a post and panel
alternative is available.
 A unique, rotatable and interlocking connection system
and limitless architectural finishes makes Fanwall
extremely versatile.
 This engineered barrier wall system is available for nearly
every noise or security problem found in the
transportation, utility, industrial, and commercial
markets.
RE/Tension - Precast Counter
fort Retaining Wall
 RE/Tension consists of integral precast box attached to
the back of a standard MSE wall facing panel, the box
serves as a form for a cast-in-place concrete
counterfort.
 This system is ideally suited for retaining walls with
right-of-way constraints, large utility conflicts and
full or partial rock cut situations.
 Since the facing is comprised of standard MSE wall
panels the RE/Tension system can be easily combined
with a Reinforced Earth retaining wall within the same
structure, while maintaining an identical aesthetic
appearance.
Advantages of retaining
walls
A retaining wall provides advantages
such as
 preventing damage by soil falling or
 sliding away from a foundation.
 This can preserve ground area on the
property or even add to it.
 DISADVANTAGES OF
RETAINING WALLS
 Vertical Cracks
 Some retaining walls begin developing vertical cracks, such as in
poured concrete. This is often due to excessive pressure or wide changes
in temperature. In order to prevent these vertical cracks, provide plenty
of good drainage, which can often be expensive to accomplish.
 Failing Foundation
 Brick retaining walls often fail under pressure.
 Retaining walls need extensive drainage resources to prevent
moisture, but they also require a strong foundation. Some retaining
walls will not be able to retain high amounts of pressure from soil,
such as bricks walls. This often results in crumbling bricks or a
failing foundation.
 Termites
 Retaining walls also can attract termites to the property, as is often
the case when timber is used as a retaining wall. Termites can nest
inside rotting timber and near molded areas. Correcting this problem
can be expensive, if you have to use termite monitoring and treatment
devices.