CHAPTER 4

Consciousness

psychology
fourth edition
 Consciousness

• Consciousness
– a person’s awareness of everything that is
going on around him or her at any given
moment
• Waking consciousness
– state in which thoughts, feelings, and
sensations are clear and organized, and the
person feels alert
 Consciousness

• Altered state of consciousness

– state in which there is a shift in the quality or
pattern of mental activity as compared to
waking consciousness
– Medical Definition of altered state of
consciousness. : any of various states of
awareness (as dreaming sleep, a drug-induced
hallucinogenic state, or a trance) that deviate
from and are usually clearly demarcated from
ordinary waking consciousness.
 Sleep

• Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind

characterized by altered consciousness, relatively
inhibited sensory activity, inhibition of nearly all
voluntary muscles, and reduced interactions with
surroundings. It is distinguished from wakefulness
by a decreased ability to react to stimuli. Mammalian
sleep occurs in repeating periods, in which the body
alternates between two highly distinct modes known as non-
REM and REM sleep. REM stands for "rapid eye movement"
but involves many other aspects including virtual paralysis of
the body.
 Necessity of Sleep
• Circadian rhythm: a cycle of bodily rhythm
that occurs over a twenty-four-hour period
– “circa”: about “diem”: day
• Hypothalamus: tiny section of the brain
that influences the glandular system
– suprachiasmatic nucleus
 deep within the hypothalamus
 the internal clock that tells people when to
wake up and when to fall asleep
 Necessity of Sleep
• Hypothalamus tells the pineal gland to
secrete melatonin which makes a person
feel sleepy.
• Microsleeps: brief sidesteps into sleep
lasting only a few seconds
• Sleep deprivation: any significant loss of
sleep results in irritability and problems
with concentration
Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults
 Necessity of Sleep
• Adaptive theory: theory of sleep proposing
that animals and humans evolved sleep
patterns to avoid predators by sleeping
when predators are most active
 Necessity of Sleep
• Restorative theory: theory of sleep proposing
that sleep is necessary to the physical health
of the body and serves to replenish chemicals
and repair cellular damage
 Stages of Sleep

• Rapid eye movement (REM): stage of

sleep in which the eyes move rapidly
under the eyelids and the person is
typically experiencing a dream

• NREM (non-REM) sleep: any of the stages

of sleep that do not include REM
 Brain Wave Patterns
• Electroencephalograph (EEG)
– allows scientists to see the brain wave activity
as a person passes through the various stages
of sleep and to determine what type of sleep
the person has entered
 alpha waves: brain waves that indicate a state of
relaxation or light sleep
 theta waves: brain waves indicating the early stages
of sleep
 delta waves: long, slow waves that indicate the
deepest stage of sleep
Brain Activity
During Sleep
 Stages of Sleep
American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) rules

• N1 (R&K Stage 1): light sleep

– may experience:
 hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual
events
 hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks
• N2 (R&K Stage 2): sleep spindles
– sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity only
lasting a second or two

Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) criteria is an older standard.

 Stages of Sleep
American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) rules

• N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): delta waves

pronounced
– deepest stage of sleep: 50 percent or more of
waves are delta waves
– body at lowest level of functioning
– time at which growth occurs

Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) criteria is an older 4 stage standard.

 REM Sleep and Dreaming

• REM sleep is paradoxical sleep (high level

of brain activity)
– If wakened during REM sleep, sleepers
almost always report a dream.
• REM rebound: increased amounts of REM
sleep after being deprived of REM sleep
on earlier nights
A Typical Night’s Sleep
 Sleep Disorders

• Nightmares
– bad dreams occurring during REM sleep
• REM behavior disorder: In a person
with REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), the
paralysis that normally occurs during REM
sleep is incomplete or absent, allowing the
person to "act out" his or her dreams. RBD is
characterized by the acting out of dreams that
are vivid, intense, and violent.
 Stage Four Sleep Disorders
• Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
– episode of moving around or walking around in one’s sleep
– occurs in deep sleep
– more common among children than adults
 Stage Four Sleep Disorders
• Night terrors
– the person experiences extreme fear and screams or
runs around during deep sleep
– doesn’t wake fully
– relatively rare disorder
 Problems during Sleep
• Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay
asleep, or get a good quality of sleep
• Sleep apnea: disorder in which the person
stops breathing for nearly half a minute or
more
– continuous positive airway pressure device
(CPAP) is the leading therapy for sleep
apnea. Patients wear a face or nasal mask during
sleep. The mask, connected to a pump, provides
a positive flow of air into the nasal passages in
order to keep the airway open.
 Problems during Sleep
• Narcolepsy: sleep
disorder in which a
person falls immediately
into REM sleep during
the day without warning
With cataplexy:
sudden loss of muscle
tone triggered by
strong emotions such
as laughter.
(Things you didn’t know #8)
 Dreams
Why People Dream and What They Dream about

• Freud: dreams as wish fulfillment

– manifest content: the dream itself
– latent content: the true, hidden meaning of a dream
 Dreams
• Activation-synthesis hypothesis: dreams are
created by the higher centers of the cortex to
explain the brain stem’s activation of cortical
cells during REM sleep periods
The Brain and Activation-Synthesis Theory
According to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, the pons in the brainstem sends random signals to
the upper part of the brain during REM sleep. These random signals pass through the thalamus, which sends
the signals to the proper sensory areas of the cortex. Once in the cortex, the association areas of the cortex
respond to the random activation of these cortical cells by synthesizing (making up) a story, or dream, using
bits and pieces of life experiences and memories
 Dreams
• Activation-information-mode model (AIM)
– revised version of the activation-
synthesis explanation of dreams
– information that is accessed during
waking hours can have an influence on
the synthesis of dreams
Dreams

AIM
Activation-
information-mode
model
 Hypnosis

• Hypnosis: state of consciousness in which

the person is especially susceptible to
suggestion
 Hypnosis

• Four elements of hypnosis:

1. hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is
being said
2. person is told to relax and feel tired
3. hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and
accept suggestions easily
4. person is told to use vivid imagination
• Hypnotic susceptibility: degree to which a
person is a good hypnotic subject
Hypnotic susceptibility measures how easily a person can be
hypnotized. Several types of scales are used; however, the
most common are the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic
Susceptibility and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales.
 Theories of Hypnosis
• Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis: people who
are hypnotized are not in an altered state, but are
merely playing the role expected of them in the
situation
• The premise of socio-cognitive theory is that being a
hypnotized subject is a social role. People
voluntarily immerse themselves in this role, and like
all social roles, the way people behave and even
how they perceive events is influenced by their
expectations and knowledge regarding the rules of
this particular social role.
 Theories of Hypnosis
• Hypnosis as dissociation: According to
dissociation theory, hypnosis represents a
special altered state of awareness in which
their consciousness is split into two
components: a hypnotized component (the
hypnotized self) and a non-hypnotized part
(the hidden observer). The hidden observer
maintains an accurate perception of the world,
exerting its influence to maintain limits on the
behaviors produced by the hypnotized self.
 Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive drugs: drugs that alter

thinking, perception, and memory
• Physical dependence
– tolerance: more and more of the drug is
needed to achieve the same effect
– withdrawal: physical symptoms resulting from
a lack of an addictive drug in the body
systems
 can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and
high blood pressure
 Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychological dependence: the feeling that a

drug is needed to continue a feeling of
emotional or psychological well-being is a
form of dependence that involves emotional–
motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., a
state of unease or dissatisfaction, a reduced
capacity to experience pleasure, or anxiety)
upon cessation of drug use or engagement
in certain behaviors.
 Stimulants
• Stimulants: drugs that increase the
functioning of the nervous system
– amphetamines: drugs that are synthesized
(made in labs) rather than found in nature
– cocaine: natural drug; produces euphoria,
energy, power, and pleasure
– nicotine: active ingredient in tobacco
– caffeine: the stimulant found in coffee, tea,
most sodas, chocolate, and even many over-
the-counter drugs
 Nicotine
• The harmful effects of nicotine are now well
known, but many people continue to smoke or
chew tobacco in spite of warnings
 Depressants

• Depressants: drugs that decrease the

functioning of the nervous system
– barbiturates: depressant drugs that have a
sedative effect
– benzodiazepines: drugs that lower anxiety
and reduce stress
– Rohypnol: the “date rape” drug
 Alcohol
• Alcohol: the chemical resulting from fermentation
or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter
– often mistaken for a stimulant, alcohol is actually a CNS
depressant
 Narcotics
• Narcotics
– opium-related drugs
– suppress the sensation of pain by binding to
and stimulating the nervous system’s natural
receptor sites for endorphins.
 opium: substance made from the opium poppy and
from which all narcotic drugs are derived
 morphine: narcotic drug derived from opium; used
to treat severe pain
 heroin: narcotic drug derived from opium that is
extremely addictive
 Hallucinogens
• Psychogenic Drugs
– drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana
that produce hallucinations or increased
feelings of relaxation and intoxication
 hallucinogens: drugs that cause false sensory
messages, altering the perception of reality
 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide): powerful
synthetic hallucinogen
 PCP: synthesized drug now used as an animal
tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant,
narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects
 Hallucinogens
• Psychogenic Drugs
• MDMA (Ecstasy or X): designer drug that can have
both stimulant and hallucinatory effects
 Stimulatory hallucinogenics: drugs that produce a
mixture of psychomotor stimulant and hallucinogenic
effects
 Marijuana
– marijuana (pot or weed): mild hallucinogen
derived from the leaves and flowers of a particular
type of hemp plant
 Hallucinations

• Hypnogogic hallucination: hallucination

that can occur just as a person is entering
N1 (light) sleep
• Hypnopompic hallucination: hallucination
that happens just as a person is in the
between-state of being in REM sleep (in
which the voluntary muscles are
paralyzed) and not yet fully awake
The End CHAPTER 4
consciousness

psychology
fourth edition