CHAPTER 7

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
AND
CHEMICAL QUANTITIES

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 7.1 Climate Change and Combustion of
Fossil Fuels: The Greenhouse Effect
• Greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere:
– Allow sunlight to
enter the
atmosphere
– Warm Earth’s
surface
– Prevent some of
the heat generated
by the sunlight The balance between incoming
from escaping and outgoing energy from the sun
determines Earth’s average
temperature.

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 Global Warming
• Scientists have measured an average 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) rise
in atmospheric temperature since 1860.
• During the same period, atmospheric CO2 levels have
risen 37%.
• The question is: Are the two trends causal?

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 7.2 Chemical and Physical Changes

What is a physical
change?

• Changes that alter only the

state or appearance, but
not composition, are
physical changes.

• The atoms or molecules

that compose a substance
do not change their identity
during a physical change. • When water boils, it changes its
state from a liquid to a gas.

• The gas remains composed of

water molecules, so this is
a physical change.
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 What is a chemical change?

• Changes that alter the

composition of matter are
chemical changes.

• During a chemical change,

atoms rearrange, transforming
the original substances into
different substances.

• A rusting nail is a chemical change.

• Rust occurs when the iron atoms
exchange electrons with oxygen
atoms—combining to form a NEW or
different chemical substance.
• Iron rust is the compound iron(III)
oxide (Fe2O3).
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 Practice Problems on Physical and
Chemical Changes

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 7.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical
Reactions
• Reactions involve chemical changes in matter resulting
in new substances.

• Reactions involve rearrangement and exchange of

atoms to produce new molecules.
Reactants Products

• A chemical reaction is a written statement.

– It states the quantities, the chemical identity of the
substances in the reaction, and their physical state.
– Example:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Reactants Products
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 Chemical Equations: Shorthand for
Describing a Chemical Reaction
Chemical equations:
• Provide information about the reaction
– Molecular or ionic formulas of reactants and products

– States of reactants and products

• Gas (g), liquid (l), solid (s), and aqueous (aq)

– Relative numbers of reactant and product molecules

that are required

– Can be used to determine weights of reactants used

and products that can be made

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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.1 Balancing Chemical Equations
Write a balanced equation for the reaction between solid cobalt(III) oxide and solid carbon that produces solid
cobalt and carbon dioxide gas.

Procedure For…
Balancing Chemical Equations

Solution
Step 1 Write a skeletal (unbalanced) equation by writing Co2O3(s) + C(s)
chemical formulas for each of the reactants and Co(s) + CO2(g)
products. Review Sections 4.6 and 4.8 for
nomenclature rules. (If a skeletal equation is
provided, proceed to Step 2.)

Step 2 Balance atoms that occur in more complex Begin with O:

substances first. Always balance atoms in Co2O3(s) + C(s)
compounds before atoms in pure elements. Co(s) + CO2(g)
3 O atoms 2 O atoms

To balance O, put a 2 before

Co2O3(s) and a 3 before CO2(g).
2 Co2O3(s) + C(s)
Co(s) + 3 CO2(g)
6 O atoms 6 O atoms

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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.1 Balancing Chemical Equations
Continued

Step 3 Balance atoms that occur as free elements on either Balance Co:
side of the equation last. Always balance free 2 Co2O3(s) + C(s)
elements by adjusting the coefficient on the free Co(s) + 3 CO2(g)
element. 4 Co atoms 1 Co atom

To balance Co, put a 4 before Co(s).

2 Co2O3(s) + C(s)
4 Co(s) + 3 CO2(g)
4 Co atoms 4 Co atoms

Balance C:
2 Co2O3(s) + C(s)
4 Co(s) + 3 CO2(g)
1 C atom 3 C atoms

To balance C, put a 3 before C(s).

2 Co2O3(s) + 3 C(s)
4 Co(s) + 3 CO2(g)

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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.1 Balancing Chemical Equations
Continued

Step 4 If the balanced equation contains coefficient This step is not necessary in this
fractions, clear these by multiplying the entire example. Proceed to Step 5.
equation by the denominator of the fraction.

Step 5 Check to make certain the equation is balanced by

summing the total number of each type of atom on
both sides of the equation.

The equation is balanced.

For Practice 7.1

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between solid silicon dioxide and solid carbon that produces solid
silicon carbide (SiC) and carbon monoxide gas.

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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
Write a balanced equation for the combustion of gaseous butane (C4H10), a fuel used in portable stoves and grills, in
which it combines with gaseous oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide and gaseous water.

Procedure For…
Balancing Chemical Equations

Solution
Step 1 Write a skeletal (unbalanced) equation by writing C4H10(g) + O2(g)
chemical formulas for each of the reactants and CO2(g) + H2O(g)
products. Review Sections 4.6 and 4.8 for
nomenclature rules. (If a skeletal equation is
provided, proceed to Step 2.)

Step 2 Balance atoms that occur in more complex Begin with C:

substances first. Always balance atoms in C4H10(g) + O2(g)
compounds before atoms in pure elements. CO2(g) + H2O(g)
4 C atoms 1 C atom

To balance C, put a 4 before CO2(g).

C4H10(g) + O2(g)
4 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
4 C atoms 4 C atoms

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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
Continued

Balance H:
C4H10(g) + O2(g)
4 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
10 H atoms 2 H atoms

To balance H, put a 5 before H2O(g):

C4H10(g) + O2(g)
4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)
10 H atoms 10 H atoms

Step 3 Balance atoms that occur as free elements on either Balance O:

side of the equation last. Always balance free C4H10(g) + O2(g)
elements by adjusting the coefficient on the free 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)
element. 2 O atoms 8 O + 5 O = 13 O atoms

To balance O, put a 13/2 before O2(g):

C4H10(g) + 13/2 O2(g)
4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)
13 O atoms 13 O atoms

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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
Continued

Step 4 If the balanced equation contains coefficient [C4H10(g) + 13/2 O2(g)

fractions, clear these by multiplying the entire 4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)] × 2
equation by the denominator of the fraction. 2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g)
8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(g)

Step 5 Check to make certain the equation is balanced by

summing the total number of each type of atom on
both sides of the equation.

The equation is balanced.

For Practice 7.2
Write a balanced equation for the combustion of gaseous ethane (C2H6), a minority component of natural gas, in
which it combines with gaseous oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide and gaseous water.
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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.3 Balancing Chemical Equations Containing Ionic
Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Write a balanced equation for the reaction between aqueous strontium chloride and aqueous lithium phosphate to form
solid strontium phosphate and aqueous lithium chloride.

Solution
Step 1 Write a skeletal equation by writing chemical formulas for each of the reactants and products. Review
Sections 4.6 and 4.8 for naming rules. (If a skeletal equation is provided, proceed to Step 2.)
SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)
Step 2 Balance metal ions (cations) first. If a polyatomic cation exists on both sides of the equation, balance it as
a unit.
Begin with Sr2+:
SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)
1 Sr2+ ion 3 Sr2+ ions
To balance Sr2+, put a 3 before SrCl2(aq).
3 SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)
3 Sr2+ ions 3 Sr2+ ions

Balance Li+:
3 SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)
3 Li+ ions 1 Li+ ion
To balance Li+, put a 3 before LiCl(aq).
3 SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3 LiCl(aq)
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3 Li+ ions 3 Li+ ions
 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.3 Balancing Chemical Equations Containing Ionic
Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Continued

Step 3 Balance nonmetal ions (anions) second. If a polyatomic anion exists on both sides of the equation, balance it
as a unit.

Balance PO43–:
3 SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3 LiCl(aq)
1 PO43– ion 2 PO43– ions
To balance PO43–, put a 2 before Li3PO4(aq).
3 SrCl2(aq) + 2 Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3 LiCl(aq)
2 PO43– ions 2 PO43– ions

Balance Cl–:
3 SrCl2(aq) + 2 Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3 LiCl(aq)
6 Cl– ions 1 Cl– ion
To balance Cl–, replace the 3 before LiCl(aq) with a 6. This also corrects the
balance for Li+, which was thrown off in the previous step.
3 SrCl2(aq) + 2 Li3PO4(aq) Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 6 LiCl(aq)
6 Cl– ions 6 Cl– ions
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 Practice Problem: Balancing and Writing
Chemical Equations
Example 7.3 Balancing Chemical Equations Containing Ionic
Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Continued

Step 4 Check to make certain the equation is balanced by summing the total number of each type of ion on both sides
of the equation.

The equation is balanced.

For Practice 7.3

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between aqueous lead(II) nitrate and aqueous potassium chloride to
form solid lead(II) chloride and aqueous potassium nitrate.

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 7.4 The Quantities in Chemical Reactions
• The amount of every substance used and made in a chemical reaction
is related to the amounts of all the other substances in the reaction.
– Law of conservation of mass
– Balancing equations by balancing atoms

• The study of the numerical relationship between chemical quantities in

a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry.

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 Reaction Stoichiometry
• The coefficients in a chemical reaction specify the relative
amounts in moles of each of the substances involved in
the reaction.

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

• What the above BALANCED chemical equation says:

2 molecules of C8H18 react with 25 molecules of O2 to form

16 molecules of CO2 and 18 molecules of H2O.

2 moles of C8H18 react with 25 moles of O2 to form 16 moles of CO2

and 18 moles of H2O.

2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2O

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 Cooking Stoichiometry: Making Pizza
• The number of pizzas you can make depends on the
amount of ingredients you use.
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cups cheese → 1 pizza

This relationship can be expressed mathematically.

1 crust : 5 oz. sauce : 2 cups cheese : 1 pizza

• We can compare the amount of pizza that can be made

from 6 cups of cheese:
– Since 2 cups cheese : 1 pizza, then,

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 Mole-to-Mole Conversions
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
• In the same way that the ratio was used from the pizza recipe
example, the stoichiometric ratio acts as a conversion factor
between the amount in moles of a reactant to moles of a product.
– Reactant to product:
• Stoichiometric ratio: 2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

• Stoichiometric ratio can be between:

– Reactant to reactant:
• Stoichiometric ratio: 2 moles C8H18 : 25 moles O2

– Product to product:
• Stoichiometric ratio: 16 moles CO2 : 18 moles H2O

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 How Many Moles of CO2 Form If 22.0 Moles
of C8H18 Are Combusted (Burned)?
Set-up and Solution:
• Balanced chemical reaction:
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

• Stoichiometric ratio from balanced reaction:

2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

• Calculation:

• Answer: The combustion of 22 moles of C8H18 adds 176 moles of

CO2 to the atmosphere.

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 Mole-to-Mass and Mass-to-Mass
Conversions
Stoichiometric ratios can be used as a conversion factor between the
amount in grams (mass) of a reactant used to determine mass (grams)
of a product made.

• Strategy: A is reactant and B is the product.

Mass of A Moles of A Stoichiometric ratio B : A Moles B Mass B

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 Mole-to-Mass and Mass-to-Mass
Conversions
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
Problem:
Determine the mass (grams) of CO2 produced when 3.6 ×1015 grams of
C8H18 is burned in excess oxygen gas.

Strategy:
• Need a balanced reaction
• From the balanced reaction, use the stoichiometric relationship
between C8H18 and CO2.

Mass of C8H18 Moles of C8H18 Stoichiometric ratio 2 C8H18 : 16 CO2

Moles of CO2 Mass of CO2

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 Mole-to-Mass and Mass-to-Mass
Conversions

Problem:
Determine the mass (grams) of CO2 produced when 3.6 × 1015 grams of
C8H18 is burned in excess oxygen gas.

Strategy:
• Need a balanced reaction:
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

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 Mole-to-Mass and Mass-to-Mass
Conversions

• From the balanced reaction, use the stoichiometric relationship between

C8H18 and CO2.
2 mol C8H18 : 16 mol CO2

Mass of C8H18 → Moles of C8H18 → Stoichiometric ratio 2 C8H18 : 16 CO2 →

Moles of CO2 → Mass of CO2

= 1.1 × 1016 grams of CO2 is produced

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry
Example 7.4 Stoichiometry
In photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (C 6H12O6) according to the reaction:
sunlight
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) 6 O2(g) + C6H12O6(aq)

Suppose you determine that a particular plant consumes 37.8 g of CO 2 in one week. Assuming that there is more
than enough water present to react with all of the CO2, what mass of glucose (in grams) can the plant synthesize
from the CO2?

SORT The problem gives the mass of carbon dioxide and asks you to find the mass of glucose that the plant can
produce.

GIVEN 37.8 g CO2

FIND g C6H12O6

STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan follows the general pattern of mass A amount A (in moles) amount
B (in moles) mass B. From the chemical equation, deduce the relationship between moles of carbon dioxide and
moles of glucose. Use the molar masses to convert between grams and moles.

CONCEPTUAL PLAN

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry
Example 7.4 Stoichiometry
Continued

RELATIONSHIPS USED
molar mass CO2 = 44.01 g/mol
6 mol CO2 : 1 mol C6H12O6 (from chemical equation)
molar mass C6H12O6 = 180.2 g/mol

SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. Begin with g CO2 and use the conversion factors to arrive
at g C6H12O6.

SOLUTION

CHECK The units of the answer are correct. The magnitude of the answer (25.8 g) is less than the initial mass of CO 2
(37.8 g). This is reasonable because each carbon in CO2 has two oxygen atoms associated with it, while in C6H12O6
each carbon has only one oxygen atom associated with it and two hydrogen atoms, which are much lighter than
oxygen. Therefore, the mass of glucose the plant produces should be less than the mass of carbon dioxide for this
reaction.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry
Example 7.4 Stoichiometry
Continued

For Practice 7.4

Magnesium hydroxide, the active ingredient in milk of magnesia, neutralizes stomach acid, primarily HCl, according
to the reaction:

Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) 2 H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)

What mass of HCl, in grams, is neutralized by a dose of milk of magnesia containing 3.26 g Mg(OH) 2?

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry
Example 7.5 Stoichiometry
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a component of acid rain that forms when SO2, a pollutant, reacts with oxygen and water
according to the simplified reaction:

2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O(l) 2 H2SO4(aq)

The generation of the electricity used by a medium-sized home produces about 25 kg of SO2 per year. Assuming
that there is more than enough O2 and H2O, what mass of H2SO4, in kilograms, can form from this much SO2?

SORT The problem gives the mass of sulfur dioxide and asks you to find the mass of sulfuric acid.

GIVEN 25 kg SO2

FIND kg H2SO4

STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan follows the standard format of mass amount (in moles) amount (in
moles) mass. Because the original quantity of SO2 is given in kilograms, you must first convert to grams. You
can deduce the relationship between moles of sulfur dioxide and moles of sulfuric acid from the balanced chemical
equation. Because the final quantity is requested in kilograms, you convert to kilograms at the end.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry
Example 7.5 Stoichiometry
Continued

CONCEPTUAL PLAN

RELATIONSHIPS USED
1 kg = 1000 g 2 mol SO2 : 2 mol H2SO4 (from chemical equation)
molar mass SO2 = 64.07 g/mol molar mass H2SO4 = 98.09 g/mol

SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. Begin with the given amount of SO2 in kilograms and use
the conversion factors to arrive at kg H2SO4.

SOLUTION

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry
Example 7.5 Stoichiometry
Continued

CHECK The units of the final answer are correct. The magnitude of the final answer (38 kg H2SO4) is larger than
the given amount of SO2 (25 kg). This is reasonable because in the reaction each SO2 molecule “gains weight” by
reacting with O2 and H2O.

For Practice 7.5

Another component of acid rain is nitric acid, which forms when NO2, also a pollutant, reacts with oxygen and water
according to the simplified equation:

4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O(l) 4 HNO3(aq)

The generation of the electricity used by a medium-sized home produces about 16 kg of NO2 per year. Assuming that
there is adequate O2 and H2O, what mass of HNO3, in kilograms, can form from this amount of NO2 pollutant?

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 7.5 Limiting Reactant, Excess Reactant,
Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
Back to the pizza recipe:
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cups cheese → 1 pizza

Suppose you have 4 crusts, 10 cups of cheese, and 15 oz. tomato sauce.
How many pizzas can you make?
Strategy:
We have enough crusts to make

We have enough cheese to make

We have enough tomato sauce to make

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 Limiting Reactant: Pizza Problem Continued
• We have enough crusts for 4 pizzas, enough cheese for
5 pizzas, but ONLY enough tomato sauce for 3 pizzas.
– Therefore, only 3 pizzas can be made.
– The tomato sauce limits how many pizzas can be made.

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 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Connection
• In the pizza analogy, the tomato sauce is the limiting reactant,
the reactant that makes the least amount of product.
• The limiting reactant is also known as the limiting reagent.

• The maximum number of pizzas that can be made depends on

this ingredient, the tomato sauce.
– In chemical reactions, this is called the theoretical yield.

• Theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be made in a

chemical reaction based on the amount of limiting reactant.
– Example:
• The ingredient that makes the least amount of pizza determines
how many pizzas you can make (theoretical yield).

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 More Pizza Making
• Assume that while making pizzas, a pizza is burnt or
dropped on the floor and only two pizzas are available
to eat.

• The actual amount of product made in a chemical reaction

is called the actual yield.

• Actual yield is about efficiency.

– To determine your efficiency in making pizzas, a percentage value
can be calculated.
– In chemical reactions, this is called a percent yield.

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 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Problem

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 Summarizing Limiting Reactant and
Theoretical Yield
• The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant that is
completely consumed in a chemical reaction and limits the amount of
product.

• The reactant in excess is any reactant that occurs in a quantity

greater than is required to completely react with the limiting reactant.

• The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be made in a

chemical reaction based on the amount of limiting reactant.

• The actual yield is the amount of product actually produced by a

chemical reaction.

• The percent yield is calculated as:

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.6 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Ammonia, NH3, can be synthesized by the reaction:

2 NO(g) + 5 H2(g) 2 NH3(g) + 2 H2O(g)

Starting with 86.3 g NO and 25.6 g H2, find the theoretical yield of ammonia in grams.

SORT You are given the mass of each reactant in grams and asked to find the theoretical yield of a product.

GIVEN 86.3 g NO, 25.6 g H2

FIND theoretical yield of NH3(g)

STRATEGIZE Determine which reactant makes the least amount of product by converting from grams of each
reactant to moles of the reactant to moles of the product. Use molar masses to convert between grams and moles and
use the stoichiometric relationships (from the balanced chemical equation) to convert between moles of reactant and
moles of product. Remember that the reactant that makes the least amount of product is the limiting reactant. Convert
the number of moles of product obtained using the limiting reactant to grams of product.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.6 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Continued

CONCEPTUAL PLAN

RELATIONSHIPS USED
molar mass NO = 30.01 g/mol
molar mass H2 = 2.02 g/mol
2 mol NO : 2 mol NH3 (from chemical equation)
5 mol H2 : 2 mol NH3 (from chemical equation)
molar mass NH3 = 17.03 g/mol

SOLVE Beginning with the given mass of each reactant, calculate the amount of product that can be made in moles.
Convert the amount of product made by the limiting reactant to grams—this is the theoretical yield.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.6 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Continued

SOLUTION

Since NO makes the least amount of product, it is the limiting reactant, and the theoretical yield of ammonia is 49.0 g.

CHECK The units of the answer (g NH3) are correct. The magnitude (49.0 g) seems reasonable given that 86.3 g
NO is the limiting reactant. NO contains one oxygen atom per nitrogen atom, and NH3 contains three hydrogen atoms
per nitrogen atom. Three hydrogen atoms have less mass than one oxygen atom, so it is reasonable that the mass of
NH3 obtained is less than the mass of NO.

For Practice 7.6

Ammonia can also be synthesized by the reaction:
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)
What is the theoretical yield of ammonia, in kg, that we can synthesize from 5.22 kg of H2 and 31.5 kg of N2?

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.7 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
We can obtain titanium metal from its oxide according to the following balanced equation:

TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)

When 28.6 kg of C reacts with 88.2 kg of titanium(IV) oxide, 42.8 kg of titanium is produced. Find the limiting
reactant, theoretical yield (in kg), and percent yield.

SORT You are given the mass of each reactant and the mass of product formed. You are asked to find the limiting
reactant, theoretical yield, and percent yield.

GIVEN 28.6 kg C, 88.2 kg TiO2, 42.8 kg Ti produced

FIND limiting reactant, theoretical yield, % yield

STRATEGIZE Determine which of the reactants makes the least amount of product by converting from kilograms of
each reactant to moles of product. Convert between grams and moles using molar mass. Convert between moles of
reactant and moles of product using the stoichiometric relationships derived from the balanced chemical equation. The
reactant that makes the least amount of product is the limiting reactant.

Determine the theoretical yield (in kg) by converting the number of moles of product obtained with the limiting
reactant to kilograms of product.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.7 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Continued

CONCEPTUAL PLAN

RELATIONSHIPS USED
1000 g = 1 kg 1 mol TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from chemical equation)
molar mass of C = 12.01 g/mol 2 mol C : 1 mol Ti (from chemical equation)
molar mass of TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol molar mass of Ti = 47.87 g/mol

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.7 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Continued

SOLVE Beginning with the actual amount of each reactant, calculate the amount of product that can be made in
moles. Convert the amount of product made by the limiting reactant to kilograms—this is the theoretical yield.

Calculate the percent yield by dividing the actual yield (42.8 kg Ti) by the theoretical yield.

SOLUTION

Since TiO2 makes the least amount of product, it is the limiting reactant, and 52.9 kg Ti is the theoretical yield.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Limiting
Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Example 7.7 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield
Continued

CHECK The theoretical yield has the correct units (kg Ti) and has a reasonable magnitude compared to the mass of
TiO2. Because titanium has a lower molar mass than titanium(IV) oxide, the amount of Ti made from TiO2 should
have a lower mass. The percent yield is reasonable (under 100% as it should be).

For Practice 7.7

Mining companies use this reaction to obtain iron from iron ore:

Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2 (g)

The reaction of 167 g Fe2O3 with 85.8 g CO produces 72.3 g Fe. Determine the limiting reactant, theoretical yield,
and percent yield.

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 Chemical Reaction
• In reactions with multiple reactants, it is likely that one of the
reactants will be completely used before the others.
– When this reactant is used up, the reaction stops and no more
product is made.

• The reactant that limits the amount of product is called the

limiting reactant.
– It is sometimes called the limiting reagent.
– The limiting reactant gets completely consumed.

• Reactants not completely consumed are called excess

reactants.
– The reactant in excess is any reactant that occurs in a quantity
greater than is required to completely react with the limiting reactant.

• The amount of product that can be made from the limiting

reactant is called the theoretical yield.
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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Excess
Reactant
Example 7.8 Reactant in Excess
Recall from Example 7.7 that we can extract titanium metal from its oxide according to the following balanced
equation:

TiO2(s) + 2 C(s) Ti(s) + 2 CO(g)

Recall further that in a reaction mixture containing 28.6 kg of C and 88.2 kg of TiO2, TiO2 is the limiting reactant.
Calculate the mass of the reactant in excess (which is carbon) that remains after the reaction has gone to completion.

SORT You are given the mass of each reactant and asked to find the mass of the excess reactant remaining after the
reaction has gone to completion. You know from Example 7.7 that TiO2 is the limiting reactant.

GIVEN 28.6 kg C, 88.2 kg TiO2(limiting)

FIND kg C remaining

STRATEGIZE Determine how much carbon is needed to completely react with the given amount of titanium dioxide.
Begin with kg TiO2 and convert first to mol TiO2 and then to mol C. Convert between grams and moles using molar
mass. Convert between mol TiO2 and mol C using the stoichiometric relationship from the balanced chemical equation.
Then convert mol C to kg C. This is the amount of C needed to react with the given amount of TiO2 (which is the
limiting reactant).

Now you use the given kg C. Subtract the kg C needed to react with the limiting reactant (from the previous step) to
determine the kg remaining.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Excess
Reactant
Example 7.8 Reactant in Excess
Continued

CONCEPTUAL PLAN

RELATIONSHIPS USED
1000 g = 1 kg
1 mol TiO2 : 2 mol C (from chemical equation)
molar mass of C = 12.01 g/mol
molar mass of TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Excess
Reactant
Example 7.8 Reactant in Excess
Continued

SOLVE Begin with kg TiO2 and carry out the conversions to arrive at mol C.

Then convert mol C to kg C. This is the mass of C that reacts with the limiting reactant.

Finally, subtract the kg C you just calculated from the initial kg C given in the problem to determine the kg C remaining.

SOLUTION

CHECK The mass of carbon has the right units (kg C). It also seems to be a reasonable mass given that the reaction
mixture initially had almost 29 kg C—most of the carbon reacted to leave about 2 kg C.

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 Practice Problem: Stoichiometry—Excess
Reactant
Example 7.8 Reactant in Excess
Continued

For Practice 7.8

Recall from Example 7.8 that mining companies extract iron from iron ore according to the following balanced
equation:

Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g)

In a reaction mixture containing 167 g Fe2O3 and 85.8 g CO, CO is the limiting reactant. Calculate the mass of the
reactant in excess (which is Fe2O3) that remains after the reaction has gone to completion.

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 7.6 Types of Chemical Reactions

A. Combustion Reaction
• A combustion reaction involves the reaction of
a substance with O2 to form one or more
oxygen-containing compounds.

• Other products of a combustion reaction:

– Water (H2O) and Heat (energy)

• Example: Combustion of methane

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) + Heat

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 Practice Problem: Combustion
Example 7.9 Writing Equations for Combustion Reactions
Write a balanced equation for the combustion of liquid methyl alcohol (CH 3OH).

Solution
Begin by writing an unbalanced equation showing the reaction of CH3OH with O2 to form CO2 and H2O.

CH3OH(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Balance the equation using the guidelines from Section 7.3.

2 CH3OH(l) + 3 O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

For Practice 7.9

Write a balanced equation for the complete combustion of liquid C2H5SH.

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 B. Alkali Metal Reaction
Overview of Alkali Metals:
• The alkali metals (group 1A) have ns1 outer electron configurations.
– Form 1+ cation to achieve noble gas configuration
• The reactions of the alkali metals with nonmetals are vigorous.
• Common reaction for alkali metals (M) is with halogens (X)
2 M + X2 2 MX
– Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)
• The alkali metals react vigorously with water to form the dissolved alkali metal
ion, the hydroxide ion, and hydrogen gas:
2 M(s) + 2 H2O(l) 2 M+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) + H2(g)
– The reaction is highly
exothermic and can be
explosive because the heat
from the reaction can ignite
the hydrogen gas.

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 C. Halogen Reaction

Halogen Overview:
• Group 7 elements that have ns2np5 outer electron configurations:
– Form 1- anions to achieve the noble gas configuration
– Most reactive of the nonmetal elements

• The halogens (X) tend to react with metals to form ionic compounds such as
metal halides (MXn).
2 M + n X2 2 MXn

– Example: 2 Fe(s) + 3 Cl2(g) 2 FeCl3(s)

• The halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen

halides.
H2(g) + X2 2 HX(g)

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 Practice Problem: Alkali Metal and Halogen
Reactions
Example 7.10 Alkali Metal and Halogen Reactions
Write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction.
a. the reaction between potassium metal and bromine gas
b. the reaction between rubidium metal and liquid water
c. the reaction between gaseous chlorine and solid iodine

Solution
a. Alkali metals react with halogens to form metal halides. Write the formulas for the reactants and the metal halide
product (making sure to write the correct ionic chemical formula for the metal halide, as outlined in Section 4.6),
and then balance the equation.
2 K(s) + Br2(g) 2 KBr(s)

b. Alkali metals react with water to form the dissolved metal ion, the hydroxide ion, and hydrogen gas. Write the
skeletal equation including these and then balance it.
2 Rb(s) + 2 H2O(l) 2 Rb+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) + H2 (g)
c. Halogens react with each other to form interhalogen compounds. Write the skeletal equation with the halogens
as the reactants and the interhalogen compound as the product and balance the equation.
Cl2 (g) + I2(s) 2 ICl(g)

For Practice 7.10

Write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction.
a. the reaction between aluminum metal and chlorine gas
b. the reaction between lithium metal and liquid water
c. the reaction between gaseous hydrogen and liquid bromine
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