Weathering

Denudation & Deposition
Processes in denudation
 Weathering
 Mass wasting
 erosion
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Processes and Agents of Mechanical
Weathering
These are actions or things that break down
Earth materials
frost wedging
thermal expansion and contraction
mechanical exfoliation
abrasion by wind, water or gravity
plant growth

Weathering
• Exfoliation – As underlying rock layers are
exposed, there is less pressure on them
and they expand.
• This causes the rigid layers to crack and
sections to slide off (similar to peeling of
outer skin layers after a sunburn like an
onion shells).
• The expanding layers often form a dome.
Dome Exfoliation

exfoliation
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the exfoliated granite sheets shown in the picture.
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Weathering
• Frost Wedging – cracking of rock mass by
the expansion of water as it freezes in
crevices and cracks

Shattered rocks
are common in
cold and alpine
environments
where repeated
freeze-thaw
cycles gradually
pry rocks apart.

Weathering
Abrasion – Moving sediments or rock
sections can break off pieces from a rock
surface they strike.
• The sediments can be moved by wind or
water and the large rock sections by gravity.

Wind Abrasion

Wind and Water Abrasion

http://www.gsi.ie/Education/European+Landscapes/United+Kingdom.htm Photo Ref: P211442, "IPR/52-34CW BGS©NERC
Chemical Weathering (cont.)
3. Hydrolysis — a chemical reaction involving water.
As an example, feldspars chemically alter (hydrolysis) to form clay minerals such as
kaolinite.
Typically, natural waters contained some dissolved ions that accelerate the hydrolysis
of minerals.
Clay minerals are the end products of weathering of igneous silicate minerals and are
very stable under surface conditions. Clays make up a major portion of soils and
sedimentary rocks such as shale.

Chemical Weathering (cont.)
2. Oxidation — a chemical process that is responsible for rust
forming from iron.
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
The oxidation of iron is greatly accelerated in water.
Igneous ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine, pyroxene
and amphibole oxidize in the presence of water at surface
conditions.
Another important oxidation reaction occurs when sulfide
minerals such as pyrite (FeS2 ) oxidize to form iron oxide
minerals.
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2. Oxidation
The oxidation of iron is responsible for many rocks having a rusty color.

Solution: process by which rock is
dissolved in water
• Is strongly influenced by pH and
temperature
• When water becomes saturated,
chemicals may precipitate out forming
evaporite deposits.
• Calcium carbonate (calcite, limestone),
sodium chloride (salt), and calcium
sulfate (gypsum) are particularly
vulnerable to solution weathering.
This photo of Lime Sink was taken on 20 July 1932, over a week after the drawdown,
which occurred over the night of 9-10 July.
‘Karst’ landforms develop in areas underlain with
limestone

Factors in Chemical Weathering
• Climate – wet and warm maximizes
chemical reactions
• Plants and animals – living organisms
secrete substances that react with rock
• Time – longer contact means greater
change
• Mineral composition – some minerals are
more susceptible to change than others

Processes and Agents of biological
Weathering
• Plant Growth – As plants such as trees send
out root systems, the fine roots find their way
into cracks in the rocks.
• As the roots increase in size, they force the
rock sections apart, increasing the separation
and weathering.

Plant Wedging

Biological Weathering
Can be both chemical and

mechanical in nature.
• roots split rocks apart
• roots produce acids

that dissolve rocks.
• tree throw
• burrowing animals
Individual assignment
1. What are the factors affecting the rate and
nature of weathering?
2. Explain the significances of weathering

Factors affecting weathering
• Endogenetic (geological, factors are related to the rock
characteristics)
 rock strength/hardness
• generally, weaker rocks get weathered more easily than stronger
rocks –> granite vs sandstone.
• however, this does not hold true all the time as even the
hardest/strongest rocks can be betrayed by the presence of joints
and lines of weaknesses which make them as/more vulnerable to
weathering agents –> granite: vertical and horizontal joints, pseudo
bedding planes and sheet joints
• mineral and chemical composition determines the degree of
susceptibility to weathering determines the specific type of
chemical weathering that are/is likely to operate on the rock
– e.g. calcium carbonate in limestone and chalk –> carbonation-
solution, feldspar in granite –> hydrolysis
– iron compounds –> oxidation
 Nature of rock
Colored rock has effect on weathering, the rock which contain
black mineral absorbs temperature so that the physical
weathering takes place. E.g. olivines are dark. the rocks with
minerals like granite (composed of quarts, feldspar) resist
weathering than the rock contains grabbo (composed of
augite and lime soda) are affected faster by chemical
weathering. Weakness of the rock which has the line of
weakness such as crack or joint affected much by weathering.
• Colour affects insolation weathering in terms of the
differential rates of expansion and contraction usually more
stable minerals are light-coloured while less stable ones are
dark-coloured –> darker-coloured rocks are more prone to
chemical attacks than lighter-coloured ones in
general heterogenous vs homogenous rocks

• rock structure
• refers to the presence of joints and cavities
– Provide agents of chemical and physical weathering
access into rock masses
– Exposes the subsurface portions of rock to agents of
weathering –> allowing weathering to take place not
just on the surface/near the surface, but deep
underground as well as in the Deep Weathering
Exhumation Theory may be inherent or may develop
as time passes and rock is subjected to different types
of stresses associated with different tectonic
processes massive vs densely jointed rocks

• Types of lines of weaknesses
• Bedding planes –> horizontal joints or junctions separating
different layers of sedimentary rock (limestone, sandstone,
chalk etc.); provide routes for the movement of acidulated
water –> formation of limestone caves and caverns as the
water table migrates over time
• Lines of cleavage –> common in metamorphic rocks
• Master joints –> very extensive and usually larger than
normal joints
– formed as intrusive igneous rocks cool and contract
– their intersection with bedding planes and other joints give
weathered/broken up rocks different shapes and patterns e.g.
granite and gneiss usually have cuboidal jointing pattern –>
block disintegration
• DENSITY of joints –> has the ability to affect the form and
shape of landforms
– dense jointing pattern –> agents of weathering have greater
access to the rock –> more intense weathering

• rock texture coarse-grained vs fine-
grained coarse grained –> individual minerals
can undergo selective chemical attack fine
grained –> crystals are more tightly bonded
thus increasing their strength and coherence
BUT crystal boundaries provide potential lines
of weaknesses that may be exploited by
weathering usually fine-grained rocks weather
more quickly than coarse-grained ones

 Exogenetic (factors other than rock characteristics;
pertaining to the external environment).
Climate
 Water (precipitation)
• Temperature and rainfall are two major weather
element, in certain climatic region receive a certain
type of weathering e.g in equatorial region with high
temperature experience fact and deep weathering.
• Chemical weathering is most common in area of high
rainfall while physical weathering is common in low
rainfall.
• In climates where water is scarce (savanna, semi and
hot deserts) physical weathering is more dominant
Temperature influences the rate of weathering –>
Van Hoff’s rule
• weathering in tropical areas usually 4 times faster
• temperature range is also important, particularly
for physical weathering
– large/wide temperature range –> insolation
weathering/thermal expansion in desert regions
– temperature that hover around freezing point of water
–> frost action in periglacial regions
– Depending on the factors above, rates of weathering
can vary between rapid and extremely slow, thus the
time it takes for weathering to occur and the volume
of rock affected in a given time will depend on slope,
climate, and animals.
 Vegetation/Living organism (Flora/Fauna)
• At the area which have dense vegetation the plants add nitric
acid within its roots so when it penetrates within the rock the
acid reacts with rock affecting weathering compared to the
place with low vegetation. Animal affect weathering through
living or dying.
• (affected by and closely related to climate)decaying vegetal
matter produces organic acids for biochemical weathering
• tropical rainforest vs coniferous forests
– tropical rainforest supply 100-200 tonnes of litter per hectare per
year
– coniferous forests supply 20-25 tonnes of litter per hectare per year
• Due to the stark difference in the amount of litter produced
between tropical and coniferous forests, rates of weathering can
differ with those in tropical rainforests being 40 times faster
then those in coniferous forests

Relief/topography
• High relief/altitude –> lower temperatures–> frost
action
• steep slopes help transport weathered material away
(mass movement), continually exposing new rock to
weathering agents
• Steep slopes promote drainage (overland flow,
through flow), inhibits infiltration into the ground
and therefore hampers/limits deep chemical
weathering.
• Gentle slopes hampers the removal of regolith and
moisture but promotes/enhances deep chemical
weathering as water is more likely to infiltrate and
not removed so quickly
ASPECT
• (direction at which the slope is facing)affects
insolation receipts and hence temperature and
evaporation rates –> responsible for the local
variations in weathering rates
• Northern hemisphere: south-facing slopes receives
more sunlight and hence have higher temperatures
–> more melting and freeze-thaw cycles –> more
physical weathering
• In cold but not frosty areas in the northern
hemisphere: south-facing slopes receive more
sunshine and have more vegetation –> biological
and chemical weathering

 Time
• When the process of weathering takes place in a day or
night but after a very long time the weathering will be
more but if it is shorter the weathering will be less.
• rocks develop more lines of weaknesses over time –>
increases their susceptibility to weathering
• climate change –> vegetation types may also change over
time
• however, the weathered products do not change with time
–> at present times, we can still see evidence of previous
climates through the remaining weathered products
• time also affects relief via tectonic uplift or erosion
 Human activity
• air pollution –> more acidic rainwater
• agriculture, quarrying, mining –> removal of overlying
rocks, protective vegetation, exposing underlying rocks to
agents of weathering
Geomorphic Importance of weathering
 Production of Rocks Waste
 Rocks are disintegrated and decomposed and ultimately are
broken down into smaller pieces due to various kinds
weathering processes (chemical, physical etc.) operating on
it.
 Thus, this produces immense kinds of rocks a waste or
weathered materials. These weathered materials lying over
un-weathered fresh rocks.
 The depth of weathering zone varies from place to place
and region to region depending upon the depth of water
table and duration of weathering.
 The weathered material are important economically as they
help in the process of soil formation, they expose minerals
etc. Weathering also causes landslides which damages to
human settlements in the foothill zones, causes obstructive
men the river and hence
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become lakes.
Prepared by CHAS MAKANYA 51
soil formation
 Weathering loosens the rocks by disintegration and
decomposing them and thus paved the way for
erosional processed to operate easily.
 Different agents of erosion, like running water in
humid regions, arid in hot and semi arid regions,
glaciers in cold regions and sea waves operating
along coastal zones obtain these weathered
materials and move them to other places.
 The rapid rate of weathering has accelerated the
rate of erosion of rocks of the hill ranges with the
result most of the rivers have become overloaded
and sluggish because millions tones of eroded
sediments are reaching the major rivers every year.
This in turns provide us with rich fertile soil over
which our agriculture is based on.
Lowering of surface
 Continuous removal and transfer of weathered
materials through different processes of mass-
translocation of rock wastes such as landslides,
debris slides, rocks fall, creeps etc.
 and by the agent of erosion causes gradual lowering
of the height of the affected area.
Evaluation of landforms and their modification
 Differential weathering helps in the evolution of
different types of landforms.
 Weathering plays important role in the development
of stone lattice (in not deserts), tors, buttes, talus,
cones, talus fans etc. Other features formed through
weathering like exfoliation domes, clints, grikes etc.
Provision of building materials to man.
• The scree and blocks can be used in construction
of building the house, bridge and dams.
Tourist attraction
Some landforms resulted by weathering process
have good visual impression so are very attractive to
tourists. Example granite tors like Kit mikage in
seme hills in Kisumu district.

Weathering is important because it:
• Produces unconsolidated material (parent
material) from which soil is formed.
• Provides plant nutrients
• Results in the formation of secondary minerals, the
most important group being the clay minerals.
• Weathering and erosion goes hand in hand and
thus and this it is not wise to separate the
inseparable, so it is difficult to ascertain the
quantum of work done by weathering and erosion
in the development of a particular type of
landform.
• In earth science, erosion is the action of surface
processes (such as water flow or wind) that
remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one
location on the Earth's crust, then transport it
away to another location.

Differential weathering
• The concept of differential weathering is
referring to the variation that exist in the nature
and the rate of occurring of the weathering
processes on the earth’s surface.
• That is to say a region may experience physical
weathering than chemical weathering and vice
versa is true.
• The factors for differential weathering may as
follows.

Nature of the rock materials
generally, weaker rocks get weathered more easily
than stronger rocks –> granite vs sandstone.
mineral and chemical composition determines the
degree of susceptibility to weathering determines
the specific type of chemical weathering that
are/is likely to operate on the rock
– e.g. calcium carbonate in limestone and chalk –
> carbonation-solution, feldspar in granite –>
hydrolysis
– iron compounds –> oxidation

Nature of the rock…
 Colored rock has effect on weathering, the rock which
contain black mineral absorbs temperature so that the
physical weathering takes place.
 E.g. olivines are dark. the rocks with minerals like granite
(composed of quarts, feldspar) resist weathering than the
rock contains grabbo (composed of lime soda) are affected
faster by chemical weathering.
 Weakness of the rock which has the line of weakness such
as crack or joint affected much by weathering.
 Colour affects insolation weathering in terms of the
differential rates of expansion and contraction usually
more stable minerals are light-coloured while less stable
ones are dark-coloured –> darker-coloured rocks are more
prone to chemical attacks than lighter-coloured ones in
general heterogenous vs homogenous rocks
Rock Structure
 Rock Structure ; refers to the presence of joints and
cavities in the rock masses.
 Provide agents of chemical and physical weathering
access into rock masses
 Exposes the subsurface portions of rock to agents of
weathering –> allowing weathering to take place not
just on the surface/near the surface

rock texture
coarse-grained vs fine-grained; coarse grained –>
individual minerals can undergo selective
chemical attack while fine grained –> crystals are
more tightly bonded thus increasing their strength
and coherence
BUT crystal boundaries provide potential lines of
weaknesses that may be exploited by
weathering usually fine-grained rocks weather
more quickly than coarse-grained ones.

Climate (The region that rock exist)
Temperature and rainfall are two major weather
element, in certain climatic region receive a
certain type of weathering e.g in equatorial
region with high temperature experience fact and
deep weathering.
• Chemical weathering is most common in area of
high rainfall while physical weathering is common
in low rainfall.
• In climates where water is scarce (savanna, semi
and hot deserts) physical weathering is more
dominant
Climate …
 Temperature range is also important,
particularly for physical weathering
–large/wide temperature range –>
insolation weathering/thermal expansion
in desert regions
–temperature that hover around freezing
point of water –> frost action in
periglacial regions

Vegetation/Living organism (Flora/Fauna)
At the area which have dense vegetation the
plants add nitric acid within its roots so when it
penetrates within the rock the acid reacts with
rock affecting weathering compared to the place
with low vegetation. Animal affect weathering
through living or dying.
(affected by and closely related to
climate)decaying vegetal matter produces organic
acids for biochemical weathering

Human activity
air pollution –> more acidic rainwater (chemical
weathering)
agriculture, quarrying, mining –> removal of
overlying rocks, protective vegetation, exposing
underlying rocks to agents of weathering.

Relief/topography
• High relief/altitude –> lower temperatures–>
frost action
• steep slopes help transport weathered material
away (mass movement), continually exposing
new rock to weathering agents
• Steep slopes promote drainage (overland flow,
through flow), inhibits infiltration into the ground
and therefore hampers deep chemical
weathering.
• Gentle slopes hampers the removal of regolith
and moisture but promotes/enhances deep
chemical weathering as water is more likely to
infiltrate and not removed so quickly
Agents for weathering processes
Water – chemical weathering (liquid) & physical
weathering (frozen in the crevice)
Temperature - physical weathering(direct sun
heating the rock surface)
Salt – physical weathering when crystals are formed
in the crevice via evaporation)
Biotic – physical weathering when roots and tree
stem grow in size, as well as animal burrowing &
chemical weathering when plant root, lichen, moss
pant, and animal like snails secret acids in the rock
cracks and human influence
Wind – physical weathering when wind abrasion
takes place.

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Denudation & Deposition

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Can be both chemical and

• roots split rocks apart

• roots produce acids

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