artery? Why can a strong wind cause the roof to blow off a house? Why do people snore? 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Fluids moving across surfaces: Qualitative analysis How does air blowing over the top of a beach ball lift and support the ball? We must compare the forces that stationary air exerts on a surface to the forces exerted on the surface by moving air. We can deduce the direction of the net force due to air pressure exerted on different sides of the ball.
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Observational experiment
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Observational experiment
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Observational experiment
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Fluids moving across surfaces: Qualitative analysis Stationary air exerted more pressure on the object than the moving air. Explanation 1: Temperature. The pressure on one side of an object decreases because a moving fluid is warmer than a stationary fluid. Explanation 2: Fluid speed. The pressure that a fluid exerts on a surface decreases as the speed with which the fluid moves across the surface increases.
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Testing experiments
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Testing experiments
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bernoulli's principle
Bernoulli's principle has many important
applications, including fluid-flow implications in biological systems such as blood through blood vessels.
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Clarinet reed
A musician blows air into a
clarinet, moving air across the top of a reed. Air pressure across the top of the reed decreases relative to the pressure below the reed. In response, the flexible reed rises and closes the mouthpiece of the clarinet. Once it is closed, airflow stops, the pressure equalizes, and the reed opens. The rhythmic opening and closing of the reed initiates the sound heard from a clarinet. 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Snoring
A snoring sound occurs when
air moving through the narrow opening above the soft palate at the back of the roof of the mouth has lower pressure than nonmoving air below the palate. The normal air pressure below the soft palate, where the air is not moving, pushes the palate closed. When airflow stops, the pressures equalize and the passage reopens. 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Flow rate and fluid speed
Flow rate is defined as the volume V of fluid that moves
through a cross section of a pipe divided by the time interval t during which it moved:
The SI unit of flow rate is m3/s.
2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Relationship between flow rate and speed of the moving fluid
The darkened volume of fluid passes a cross
section of area A along the pipe. The back part of this fluid volume has, in effect, moved forward to this position. The fluid flow rate is: This leads to:
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Tip
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Continuity equation
The flow rate past cross section 1 will equal that
past cross section 2.
v1 is the average speed of the fluid passing
cross section A1 and v2 is the average speed of the fluid passing cross section A2. 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Causes and types of fluid flow
Fluid flow is caused by differences in pressure. When the pressure
in one region of the fluid is lower than the pressure in another region, the fluid tends to flow from the higher-pressure region toward the lower-pressure region. For example, large masses of air in Earth's atmosphere move from regions of high pressure into regions of low pressure.
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Streamline flow and turbulent flow
Streamline flow: Every particle of fluid that passes a
particular point follows the same path as particles that preceded it. Turbulent flow: Characterized by agitated, disorderly motion.
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Bernoulli's equation
Bernoulli's equation is the
quantitative version of Bernoulli's principle:
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Bernoulli's equation
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Using Bernoulli bar charts to understand fluid flow
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Viscous fluid flow
Previously, we assumed that fluids flow without
friction. We assumed no interaction either between the fluid and the walls of the pipes it flows in, or between the layers of the fluid. This assumption is not reasonable in many processes. When we cannot neglect this friction inside the fluid, we call the fluid "viscous."
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Factors that affect fluid flow rate
Pressure difference: How hard the fluid is
pushed forward. Radius r of the tube: It is more difficult to push fluid through a tube of tiny radius. Length of the tube: A long tube offers more resistance to flow. Fluid type: Some property of a fluid that characterizes its "thickness" or "stickiness" should affect the flow.
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Factors that affect fluid flow rate
A pump that produces an adjustable pressure,
thereby causing fluid to flow through tubes of different radii and lengths, allows us to test parameters that affect fluid flow rate.
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Viscosity
If we use the same pressure difference to push
different fluids through the same tube, we find that the fluids have different flow rates. Water flows faster than oil; oil flows faster than molasses. The quantity that measures this effect on flow rate is called the viscosity of the fluid. Flow rate is proportional to viscosity.
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Poiseuille's law
The pressure difference is related to the
resistance of the fluid to the flow and to the net push on the fluid related to the flow rate Q.
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Tip
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Viscosities of some liquids and gases
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Limitations of Poiseuille's law: Reynolds number
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Blowing the roof off a house
Roofs can be blown from houses during
tornadoes or hurricanes. How does that happen? On a windy day, the air inside the house is not moving, whereas the air outside the house is moving very rapidly. The air pressure inside the house is greater than the air pressure outside, creating a net pressure against the roof and windows that pushes outward.
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Tip
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dislodging plaque
The physical principles of a roof being lifted from
a house also explain how plaque can become dislodged from the inner wall of an artery. The plaque may block a considerable portion of the area where blood normally flows. The kinetic energy density is much greater in the constricted area. This pressure differential could cause the plaque to be pulled off the wall and tumble downstream, causing a blood clot.
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Example 11.7
Blood flows through the unobstructed part of a
blood vessel at a speed of 0.50 m/s. The blood then flows past a plaque that constricts the cross-sectional area to one-ninth the normal value. The surface area of the plaque parallel to the direction of blood flow is about 0.60 cm2 = 6.0 x 105 m2. Estimate the net force that the fluid exerts on the plaque.
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Measuring blood pressure
The air is slowly released from the
cuff, decreasing the pressure. When the pressure in the cuff is equal to the systolic pressure, blood starts to squeeze through the artery past the cuff. The flow is intermittent and turbulent and causes a sound heard with the stethoscope. When the pressure decreases to less than the diastolic pressure, the artery is continually open and blood flow is laminar and makes no sound. 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Drag force
Now we focus on solid objects moving through a
fluid. Examples: a swimmer moving through water, a skydiver falling through the air, and a car traveling through air The fluid in these and in other cases exerts a resistive drag force on the object moving through the fluid. So far we have been neglecting this force in our mechanics problems.
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Laminar drag force and Stokes's law
If an object moves relatively slowly through a
fluid, the water flows around the object in streamline laminar flow, with no turbulence. However, the fluid does exert a drag force on the object. The equation expressing this relationship is called Stokes's law:
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Reynolds number
An equation can be used to decide whether the
flow of a fluid past an object is laminar or turbulent:
If the Reynolds number is more than 1, the flow
is turbulent and we cannot use Stokes's law. In the case of turbulent flow, we use this equation: