SKIN

ANATOMY
PHYSIOLOGY
YUNITA HAPSARI
Learning Objectives
1.) Name the layers of the epidermis.
2.) Name appendages within the dermis.
3.) List the major functions of the skin.
Integumentary system
The skin and its accessory organs
Sebaceous glands
Sudoriferous glands
Sensory perceptors
Hair
Nails
 Overall Look at Skin
Bodys largest organ (15% of body weight)
Surface area of 1.5-2 m2
Made of epithelial tissue and connective tissue
Epithelial forms thin protective layer
Connective binds, protects, cushions, &
supports
3 main layers
Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutis or subcutaneous layer
 The Epidermis
A keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Avascular; nourished by diffusion of nutrients from
dermis
Cells found in the epidermis include
Stem cells
undifferentiated cells in deepest layers
Keratinocytes majority of the epidermal cells
Melanocytes
Synthesize pigment melanin that shields against UV
Tactile (Merkel) cells
receptor cells; detect light touch
Dendritic (Langerhans) cells
macrophages guard against pathogens
Cell and Layers of the Epidermis
Epidermis
Horny Zone Cells divide in the
Stratum Corneum lowest layer
Migrate up to
Stratum Lucidum
replace dead cells
Stratum Granulosum that have been
Germinal Zone shed
Stratum Spinosum As they move up,
they are filled with
Stratum
keratin to protect
Germinativum
against invasion
(keratinization)
 Stratum Corneum

A.K.A horny layer

Outermost layer of dead skin cells
Constantly shedding
Mostly bound by sebum
Sebum fatty or oily secretion of
sebaceous gland; serves as lubrication
 Stratum Corneum
Up to 15-30 layers of dead, scaly, keratinized
cells
Keratinization (cornification) - formation of
protective, superficial layers of cells filled with
keratin
Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except
anterior surface of eyes
Surface cells flake off (exfoliate/desquamate) in
sheets because they are tightly interconnected by
desmosomes
15-35 days required for a cell to move from S.
basale to S. corneum
 Stratum Corneum & Body Water
S. corneum is water resistant but not waterproof
Water from interstitial fluids penetrates the surface and
evaporates into the air
- known as insensible perspiration (500 ml/day = 1 pt.)
- damage that breaks connections between
superficial & deeper layers allows fluid to
accumulate = blister
- severe burns increase rate of insensible perspiration
& lead to dangerous loss of excess fluid
Immersion of skin in water (bath) may move water into
or out of the epithelium
- in salt water, water leaves, accelerating dehydration
 Stratum Lucidum
Below stratum corneum
Thin translucent zone seen only in thick skin
Keratinocytes are packed with keratin
Cells have no nucleus or organelles
Only present in palms of hands and soles of feet,
where epidermis is thickest
Purpose unknown
 Stratum Granulosum
AKA granular layer
Cells are living
As cells are pushed upward, lose nuclei & die
Gives skin opaque appearance
Varies in thickness
Persistent friction & pressure cause areas to
thicken for protection & form calluses
 Stratum Granulosum
3 to 5 layers of flat keratinocytes; have stopped
dividing
Contain keratinohyalin granules (hence its name)
combine with filaments of cytoskeleton to form
keratin (a tough fibrous protein)
Major component of hair and nails
Keratinocytes also produce lipid-filled vesicles that
release a glycolipid by exocytosis to waterproof the
skin
Glycolipid also forms a barrier between surface
cells and deeper layers of the epidermis
cuts off surface strata from nutrient supply; thus, upper
layer cells quickly die
 Stratum Spinosum
AKA Prickle cell layer
Made of living cells
Several layers of keratinocytes (8-10 layers)
appear spiny due to shrinkage during histological
preparation
Begin to synthesize protein keratin which cause cells
to flatten
Bound to each other by desmosomes and tight
junctions
Contains star-shaped Langerhans cells
macrophages from bone marrow that migrate to the
epidermis
Stratum Spinosum
 Stratum Germinativum/Basalis
Lowest layer of epidermis, single layer cells
resting on basement membrane; attached to
underlying dermis
Mitosis (cell division) occurs here
Cells migrate up, replacing dead skin cells that
have been shed
Desquamation (exfoliating dead skin cells)
takes about 28 days
Stratum mucosum single cell layer
 Stratum Basale = S. germinativum

Cell types in this layer

Stem cells
Undergo mitosis to produce
keratinocytes
Keratinocytes
Migrate toward skin surface &
replace lost epidermal cells
Merkel cells are touch receptors
 Stratum Germinativum
Melanocytes
UV rays react with amino acid tyrosine found
in melanocytes to produce melanin
Keratinocytes accumulate melanin on their
sunny side
Equal numbers in all races
Differences in skin color due to differences in
rate of production and how clumped or
spread out melanin is
Dark pigment gives skin color and protects
dermis from UV radiation and sun damage
Epidermal Layers & Keratinization
Skin Color
Skin color depends on
melanin
People have same
number of melanocytes
Dark skin
melanocytes are
more active,
producing more
melanin
 Dermis
Living layer or true skin
Made of dense connective tissue
Divided into two layers
Papillary layer
Reticular layer
 Papillary Layer

Superficial layer; 20% of dermis

Areolar tissue with lots of elastic fibers.
Dermal papillae - fingerlike extensions of
dermis
Form ridges of the fingerprint
Capillary beds.
Touch receptors (Meissner's), free nerve
endings sensing pain
 Reticular layer
Reticular: Deeper layer; 80% of dermis
Composed of dense irregular C.T.
Collagen and elastic fibers.
Stretching of skin (obesity, pregnancy)
can tear collage fibers and produce
striae (stretch marks)
Hair follicles, nerves, lymph vessel, oil
glands, ducts of sweat glands, other
sensory receptors found here
 Hypodermis
Aka subcutaneous tissue, superficial fascia
Mostly adipose tissue (some areolar)
Obesity due to accumulation of subcutaneous fat
About 8% thicker in women than men
Functions:
Binds skin to underlying tissue
Energy reservoir (fat)
Thermal insulation
Padding/cushioning
Hypodermic injections (subQ)
Highly vascular
Subcutaneous Layer
Located at base of dermis
Layer of fatty tissue
AKA subcutis; adipose tissue
Separates dermis from muscles and helps
skin to move over them
Contains arteries, veins, lymph, nerve
endings, fat cells
Blood Supply

Arteries and veins circulate into the dermis and

branch into smaller capillaries at the hair follicles,
the hair papillae, and glands
Transports oxygen-rich blood and nutrients
essential for:
Growth
Reproduction
Tissue repair
Lymph Supply

Lymph glands produce lymph

Contains waste products, salts,
nitrogenous wastes
Carried through vessels to lymph nodes
and fluid is filtered for excretion
Nerve Endings

Carry impulses to the brain

Found at various levels, various shapes,
depending on purpose
Most superficial are responsible for touch
Close to surface is pain receptor
Below that are receptors for heat and
cold
Deeper in dermis are pressure receptors
SKIN APPENDAGES

HAIR

NAILS

GLANDS
 HAIR
Hair is composed primarily of keratin.
The dead keratinocytes fuse
together to form the hair.

At the base of the follicle is the bulb,

which contains cells that give rise to
the keratinocytes that make up the
hair, as well as blood vessels that
nourish the growing hair.
Hair
AKA pilosebaceous unit
Found all over body except palms of
hands and soles of feet
Most is invisible to naked eye
Denser on head and limbs, after puberty
in groin area and axillae (armpits)
Hair growth influenced by hormones and
genetic inheritance
Structure of Hair Follicle
3 Types of Hair
1.) Lanugo
2.) Vellus
3.) Terminal
Pilosebaceous unit
The hair follicle and its appendages
Internal and external root sheaths
Hair shaft
Dermal papilla
Sebaceous gland
Arrector pili muscle
Each hair follicle also contains the
arrector pili, a muscle that contracts in
response to cold, fright, and other
emotions. When the muscle contracts, it
pulls the hair in the follicle into a vertical
position.
Hair Growth and Loss
Hair growth
Due to mitosis of S. basale cells in epithelial root sheath
Scalp hair - grows 1 mm every 3 days (10-18 cm/yr)
Grows for 2-4 yrs, enters dormant stage (3-4 months)
Pushed out by new hair growing beneath it
Hairs of eyebrows and eyelashes grow for only 3-4 months
Thinning or baldness = alopecia
Pattern baldness - the loss of hair from only some regions
of the scalp rather than thinning uniformaly
genetic and hormonal
sex-influenced trait(dominant in males, recessive in
females); expressed only with high testosterone levels
Hirsutism = excessive hair growth in areas not normally
hairy
hormone imbalance (ovary or adrenal cortex
problem)
 Functions of Hair
Body hair (too thin to provide warmth)
alert us to parasites crawling on skin
Scalp hair
heat retention and sunburn cover
Beard, pubic and axillary hair indicate sexual
maturity (in some guys, that is) and help
distribute sexual scents
Guard hairs and eyelashes
prevent foreign objects from getting into
nostrils, ear canals or eyes
Expression of emotions with eyebrows
This response may help some mammals
keep warm or look bigger to frighten or
intimidate their enemies.
But in humans, because of our sparse
coat of body hair, it merely produces
goose bumps.
The color of hair is due to melanin. Dark
hair contains true melanin like that found
in the skin.
Blond and red hair result from types of
melanin that contain sulfur and iron.
Hair goes gray when melanocytes age
and lose the enzyme necessary to
produce melanin.
White hair occurs when air bubbles
become incorporated into the growing
hair.
NAILS
Nails on the fingers
and toes are made
of hard, keratin-filled
epidermal cells.
They protect the
ends of the digits
from injury, help us
grasp small objects,
and enable us to
scratch.
 Nails
Growth rate is 1 mm per week
new cells added by mitosis in the nail matrix
nail plate is visible part of nail
medical diagnosis of iron deficiency =
concave nails
Fingernail Structure
 contain blood
Most of the nail vessels.
body appears pink
because of blood
flowing in the tissue
underneath. The
pale, semicircular
area called the
lunula appears
white due to an
underlying thick
layer of epidermis
that does not
 Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
Sweat glands
Found deep in dermis
Tubular ducts going to pores in epidermis
Widely distributed on body
Sweat is a filtrate of plasma and some waste
products
500 ml of insensible perspiration/day
sweating with visible wetness is diaphoresis
Sudoriferous Glands
Two kinds of sweat glands:
Apocrine
Eccrine/Merocrine
Merocrine or eccrine
. Most common.
Open directly onto surface of skin. Have
own pores.
Coiled part in dermis, duct exiting through
epidermis.
Numerous in palms and soles. Absent from
margin of lips, labia minora, tips of penis,
and clitoris.
Apocrine glands
Apocrine
Create body odor
Produce sweat containing fatty acids
Confined to axillae, genitalia (external
labia, scrotum), around anus.
Respond to stress and sex
Believed to excrete pheromones
Secretion: organic compounds that
are odorless but, when acted upon by
bacteria, may become odiferous.
Apocrine sweat glands are located
mainly in the armpit, genital area, and
around the nipples of the breasts.
Sebaceous Glands
Found all over skin
Most often appendages to the hair
follicles and open into the shafts of the
follicles
Produce waxy, oily substance called
sebum which lubricates skin
Most active during puberty
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
Occur over entire body,
ex-cept palms and soles
Oily secretion (sebum)
Lanolin in skin creams is
sheep sebum
Holocrine secretion entire
cell breaks up to form
secretion
Functions to collect dirt,
soften and lubricate hair and
skin
Most empty into hair
follicle
Exceptions: lips, meibomian
glands of eyelids, genitalia
Glands of this type
produce an oily
substance called
sebum, which keeps
the skin and hair
from drying out and
inhibits the growth
of certain harmful
bacteria.
 Functions of the Skin
Largest sensory organ
Multiple functions:
Protection
Heat regulation
Excretion discharging waste material
Secretion producing and discharging substances
from glands
Absorption uptake of one substance into another
Sensation
Synthesis of Vitamin D
Hair plays important role in these functions.
Protection

Skin protects the body against the

environment and invasion of
bacteria.
Skin is usually NOT sterile and is
covered by bacteria
Noninvading and nonpathogenic
bacteria
Built-in protective aid, ACID MANTLE
 Acid Mantle
pH of 5 to 5.6
Created by the combined activity of sweat
and sebaceous glands
Perspiration is acidic and acts as bactericide
(inhibits growth of bacteria)
NOT TRUE of areas of higher perspiration (groin
and axillae), skin is softer and less acidity in
excessive perspiration
 Protection continued
When organism does invade skin, reactions
(inflammation, swelling, welts) occur.
Leucocytes are released and destroy the
invading organism.
Reactions help to prevent spread of infection
to surrounding tissue.
 Protection continued
Horny layer acts as barrier
Skin is waterproof (thanks in part to sebum)
Sebum prevents drying and cracking
prevents bacteria and germs from entering
When intact, skin prevents harmful fluids from
entering and prevents water, blood, and
lymph from leaving.
 Protection continued
Stratum germinativum protects by
containing melanocytes which produce
melanin
Melanin the bodys own sunscreen
which protects from harmful UV
radiation
Dark skin get better protection, few
incidences of skin cancer
Protection continued

Adipose tissue cushions the body

from falls, protects against minor
trauma, and provides source of
energy
 Protection by Lymphatic
System
Lymphatic fluid and lymphocytes are
produced in lymph nodes.
Lymphocytes transported through
lymph vessels
Engulf bacteria
Carried back to lymph nodes
Filtered and drained of waste products
 Heat Regulation

Healthy body temperature of 98F or 37C

Skin helps body to adjust and maintain a
safe temperature
Evaporation
Perspiration
Radiation
Insulation
 Heat Regulation Evaporation and
Perspiration
Evaporation of perspiration produces
cooling (AKA thermoregulation).
 Heat Regulation - Radiation
Radiation from constriction or dilation of
capillaries affect body temperature.
Dilation (expansion) causes surface heat of
body to be reduced through radiation.
Causes flushed appearance.
Constriction (contraction) slows blood flow,
preserving heat. Gives skin bluish tint.
 Heat Regulation - Insulation
Arrector pili muscle contracts, lifts hair, trapping
a layer of insulating air on skins surface. (Air is
the best insulator!)
Sebum lubricates hair, preventing it from
breaking; allows hair to do its job.
Adipose tissue acts as effective insulator,
keeping body warm.
 Secretion and Excretion

Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, skins

natural lubricant
Sudoriferous glands excrete salt, urea,
and other waste material during
perspiration.
 Sensation

Experience heat, cold, pain, pressure

Damage to nerves can leave the skin
numb, once tissue has healed.
 Absorption and Penetration

Skin can absorb oil- and fat-based

substances
Pharmaceutical creams and lotions
penetrate the dermis and absorb into
the blood supply
Require medical guidance and
physicians prescriptions to be
obtained
 Absorption and Penetration
Cosmoceuticals contain NO drugs or
medications but could cause drug reactions.
May have deeper absorption qualities than
over-the-counter cosmetics.
Obtained from and require professional
guidance of dermatologist, plastic surgeon, or
skin-care professional.
1.) What are the three main layers of the
skin?

Epidermis, dermis, and subcutis or

subcutaneous layer.
2.) Into which two zones is the epidermis
divided?

Horny zone and germinal zone.

3.) Name two layers of the epidermis.

Stratum corneum,
stratum lucidum,
stratum granulosum,
stratum spinosum,
stratum germinativum.
4.) In which layer are melanocytes
found?

Stratum germinativum
5.) What are the two layers of the dermis?

Papillary layer and reticular layer

6.) What is a sudorific gland?

A sweat gland, or gland that excretes

salt, urea, and other waste material.
7.) Name at least five functions of the
skin.
Protection, heat regulation,
excretion, secretion, absorption,
sensation, synthesis of Vitamin D.