8.

METAL CUTTING
For fabrication it is important that metal-cutting principles to be
understood.
These fundamentals are found in mechanics of the forces
acting between the tool and workpiece.
The cutting tool, which removes these chips, is the focus of
many important principles.
Metal-cutting principles are useful for turning, machining
centers, milling and drilling operations and many other
processes performed by machine tools.
General View of Metal Cutting of Lathe Machine
8.1 Metal-Cutting Theory
The simplest form of cutting is the single-point tool, which is used in a
lathe cutoff operation.
Multiple-point cutting tools are merely two or more single point tools
ganged as a unit.
The milling cutter and broaching tool are examples of multi-point
cutters.
In orthogonal cutting-the cutting tool edge is perpendicular to the
direction of the cut and there is no lateral flow of metal; nor is there chip
curvature in these idealized forms.
All parts of the chip have the same velocity. The cutting is illustrated in
figure 8.1
In the cutting process it is assumed that the chip is severed from the
workpiece by shearing action across the plane
 - +

tc

Chip

Tool
t
Clearance or relief angle

Workpiece

Where is the shear angle

tc thickness of the chip
rake angle
t depth of cut
A shear plane, is determined by the rake angle of the tool and
by the friction between the chip and the tool face.
The forces acting on the chip are a stress field at the shear plane
and a distributed force field at the face of the cutting tool.
The resultant of the stress field is a force R and the resultant of
the distributed force is a force R as shown in figure 8.2B and as
listed as follows:-
Fs Resistance to shear of metal in forming the chip; this force
acts along the shear line.
Fn Force normal to the shear plane; it is the resistance offered
by the workpiece.
N Force acting on the chip normal to the cutting face of the tool;
it is provided by the tool.
F Frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip; it acts
against the chip as it moves along the face of the tool.
Figure 8.2B is the free body diagram showing the forces acting on the
chip.
Fs and Fn are replaced by their resultant R and force F and N by their
resultant R.
Consequently, R and R are colinear, equal in magnitude and opposite
direction.
The force of the workpiece on the chip are the shear force Fs and normal
compressive force Fn.
Conversely, the forces on the workpiece are Fs and Fn.
The shearing force and the angle of the shear plane are affected by the
frictional force of the chip against the tool face.
The efficiency of metal removal is higher when the friction force is
minimized.
The two-forces triangles of figure 8.2B can be superimposed by
replacing the two equal forces R and R together.
The angle between Fs and Fn is a right angle, and together with F and N,
a circle is shown in figure 8.3
From this convention two more forces drawn i.e Fc and Ft which are
horizontal cutting force and vertical (tangential) force.
These two forces are found during machining with a force dynamometer.
Various quantities can be determined using the force diagram.
For example, coefficient of friction can be found in terms of magnitude
of the forces.
F = Ft cos + Fc sin
And
N = Fc cos Ft sin
Thus, = tan = F / N
Where = Friction angle
If the chip is thicker than the depth of cut tc > t , then the ratio of the
uncut chip t and the chip thickness tc is called chip thickness ratio, r
r = t / tc = sin
cos ( )
For solving tan
tan = r cos
1- r sin
The ratio r can be found by knowing the depth of cut and measurement
thickness of chip by a point micrometer.
There is no lateral flow of the chip during cutting especially for
orthogonal cutting.
The following will give equal volume before and after cutting;
w t L = wc tc Lc
Where Lc = length of chip
L = length of material removed from the workpiece
w = width of orthogonal cut
And r = t = Lc
tc L
The velocity of the chip moves along the face of the tool is less than the
cutting velocity. Therefore the relationships are shown as below:-
Vc + Vs = Vt
Where Vc as the velocity of workpiece
Vt as the velocity of chip moves along the cutting face of the tool
Vs as the velocity of chip relative to the workpiece
The velocity of the chip sliding along the cutting face of the tool;
Vf = Vc sin
cos ( )
or
Vf = r Vc

The velocity of the chip sliding along the shear plane is;

Vs = Vc cos
cos ( )
Transducers are mounted on a platform to measure a deformation using a
change of inductance, capacitance or resistance ( strain gauge).
Figure 8.5 shows dynamometer transducer mounted in platform.
Figure 8.6 showing longitudinal, transverse and shear effect on quartz
element and construction of dynamometer load transducer.
The transducers used in the load cell are piezoelectric.
For a given material the forces on a cutting tool depend on a number of
consideration;
1. Tool forces are not changed significantly by a change in cutting speed.
2. The greater the feed of the tool, the larger the forces.
3. The greater the depth of cut, the larger the forces.
4. Cutting force increases with chip size.
5. Thrust force is decreased if the cutting tool noose radius is made
larger or if the side cutting edge is increased.
6. Cutting force is reduced as the back rake angle is increased about 1%
per degree.
7. Using a coolant reduces the forces on a tool slightly but increases tool
life.
Horsepower is calculated from measurement of the forces by a
dynamometer and using Fc.
This gives the horsepower at the spindle;
HPs = Fc x Vc
33000
Where Fc = cutting force, lb (kg)
Vc = Cutting speed, ft/min (m/min)

HPm = Horsepower at motor

= Hps
E
Where E = Efficiency of spindle drive, %.
The metal removal rate is approximately determined by the following:
Q = 12 x t x fr x Vc
Where Q = Metal removal rate, in3/min (m3/min)
t = Depth of cut, in (mm)
fr = Feed, in. per revolution (ipr or mmpr)
Vc = Cutting speed, ft/min (m/min)

Unit power or unit horsepower can be calculated;

P = HPm
Q
Where P = Unit horsepower, hp/in3/min
8.2 METAL CUTTING TOOLS
Successful application of metal cutting tools depends on:-
Tool geometry
Materials of the tool and workpiece
Coolants
Machine tools and many other factors.
Properties for effective tools
Hot hardness
Wear resistance
Toughness
Low friction
Relatively favorable cost
Cutting Tool Signatures
Tools are described by geometry and material, which vary significantly
with the workpiece material and machine tool. (Refer to fig. 8.8)
Side cutting edge angle (SCEA) vary from 00 to 900
It influences the thickness and width of the chip
Longer and thinner chip, the downward pressure is spread entire length
it will increase the tool life
Tool life can be increased by decreasing the SCEA or increase the feed
when machining the difficult materials.
If SCEA is 00 it will received a strong shocked
But if SCEA is 300, the tool will receives a lower initial shock from the
metal.
Side Relief Angle (SRA)
Eliminates tool breakage and increase tool life
If the angle is too small, the tool will rub against the workpiece and
generates excessive heat
SRA for chilled iron is 20 to 40 & 40 to 60 for hard steels & 70-120 for
nonferrous materials
End Relief Angle
Allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the workpiece
If the back rake angle is downward toward the nose, it is negative back
rake
If the slope is downward from the nose to rear, it is positive.
The angle controls the flow of the chip
If the angle is negative, it strengthens the tool & provide longer life
especially interrupted cutting.
Disposal Inserts
Many styles of tool insert holders and inserts are available.
The inserts are disposable after wear out and replaced by other inserts.
The body an be used over and over again.
Indexable tools are more economical than brazed on carbide tips
The indexable inserts provide a number of edges, while the brazed tip
provides only one edge.
The inserts vary in geometry from triangular, square, circular and
diamond to other special shapes. (Refer to fig. 8.9)
Tool Materials
The best material is the one that will produce the machined part at the
lowest price cost.
Figure 8.10A & 8.10B shows various properties of tools with respect to
cutting velocity.
Types of materials used for Tool
Cemented Carbide *Cubic Boron Nitride
High speed steel
High carbon steel
Cast Nonferrous alloy
Diamond
Ceramic
Cermat (high metal bonded materials)
8.3 Chip Shape and Formation
Tool chips have been classified into three types as shown in figure 8.12
1) A discontinuous or segmented chip represents a condition in
which the metal ahead of the cutting tool is fractured into small
pieces.
This type of chip is obtained in machining most brittle materials
such as cast iron and bronze.
Cutting edge is smooths and fairly good finish is obtained.
Tool life is reasonably good.
2) Discontinuous chips also are formed on some ductile materials if
the coefficient of friction is high.
Discontinuous chips from ductile materials are an indication of
poor cutting conditions.
3) Built-up Edge chips (BUE) where some of the workpiece may
even weld on the tool point.
The surface smoothness is not as good as the continuous type
chip.
The BUE remains fairly constant during cutting and has the effect
of slightly altering the rake angle.
An analog of the stress patterns involved in metal cutting can be
seen in figure 8.13
Figure 8.14 shows the three (3) heat zones for generating heat.
As the shear angle is increased the percent heat generated in the shear
plane A will decrease. Since the plastic flow of the metal takes place over
a shorter distance.
To increase the rate of metal removal an increase in feed is preferred
over an increase in speed.
Chip Control
A cutting tool will have a chip breaker curl which curls and stresses the
off-coming chips and encourages their fracture into short lengths for easy
removal. Various chip breakers incoporated into the tool holder are given
in figure 8.15
Methods of chip control
1. Grinding a small flat to a depth of 0.38 to 0.76mm on the face of the
tool along the cutting edge is known as a step-type chip breaker. It can be
parallel with the edge or at a slight angle. The width varies according to
feed and depth of cut and may range from 1.6 to 6.4mm.
2. Grinding a small groove about 0.8mm or molding small staggered
cups (by powder metallurgy method) in the insert behind the cutting edge
to a depth of 0.25 to 0.5mm is a popular technique. It depends on feed.
3. Brazing or screwing a thin carbide plate or clamp on the face of the
tool is used with insert-type tools. As the chip formed it hits the edge of
the plate and curled back to the extent that it breaks into short pieces.
4. Proper selection of tool angles controlling the direction of the curled
chip is another way to cause breakage of the curling chip. Controlling
the direction of chip flows to its breaking point.
8.4 Coolants
Application of applying coolant to achieve the following
advantages:
1. Reduce the friction between chip, tool, and workpiece
2. Reduce the temperature of the tool and work
3. Wash away chips and control any dust
4. Improve surface finish
5. Reduce the power required
6. Increase tool life
7. Reduce possible corrosion on both the work and machine
8. Help prevent welding the chip to the tool
Most coolants are liquid but they are easily directed to the tool-chip
interface and are easily circulated. Liquids are applied principally in
water or oil based solutions and with certain additives to increase their
effectiveness.
Chemical coolants are blends of chemical components dissolved in water
The chemical agents are:
1. Amines and nitrites for rust prevention
2. Nitrates for nitrites stabilization
3. Soap and wetting agents for lubrication and to reduce surface tension
4. Phosphates and borates for water softening
5. Chlorine for lubrication
6. Compounds of phosporous, chlorine and sulfur for chemical
lubrication
7. Glycols as blending agents and humectants
8. Germicides to control bacterial growth
The following are some nonchemical coolants for several common
materials:
Cast iron
Aluminum
Malleable iron
Brass
Steel
Wrought iron
8.5 Machinability
Machinability or ease of machining is influenced by the kind and
shape of cutting tool.
Two factors that affect the machinability are ductility and
hardness.
Metal properties of metals influence its general machinability.
Good machinability does not mean a good surface finish or low
forces and long tool life. Sometimes it refer to cost associated
with metal removal.
There are four test that give broad machinability values:-
1. A fixed shape tool is set to cut a predetermined depth and feed.
The cutting speed at which a tool can be run and still have a 60
min life is a measure of machinability.
2. The cutting tool rate is measured by inspection or by
radioactive methods. Lower rates indicates good machinability.
3. A dynamometer records the tool forces for a given set of cutting
condition.
4. Operate the tool until an unsatisfactory finish is apparent.
A good surface finish is affected by many variables in single or multiple
point turning. The factors improving surface finish are light cuts,
small feeds, high cutting speeds, cutting fluids, noise radii and
increased in rake angles on well-ground tools.
8.6 Tool life
Tool life is measured in several ways.
There are five basic types of wear that affect a cutting tool
1. Abrasion wear. Caused by small particles of the workpiece rubbing
against the tool surface.
2. Adhesion wear. Caused a welding action on a surfaces of the tool and
workpiece.
3. Diffusion wear. A gradual deformation of the tool surface.
4. Chemical and electrolytic wear. Reaction between the tool and
workpiece in presence of the cutting fluid. Galvanic corrosion
between the tool and workpiece.
5. Oxidation wear. The tip of the tool becomes too soft to function and
failure is quick.
Wear is evident in two places on a tool as shown in Figure 8.16
In 1906, Fred W. Taylor reported the relationship between the tool life
and cutting speed.
VTn = C
V = Cutting speed, m/min or ft/min
T = Tool life, min
n = Depend on cutting conditions and empirically found by testing
C = Constant cutting speed for a tool life, min and found by testing
Figure 8.17 shows:-
A)Several tool life curves for a constant velocity
B) Wear land limit versus cutting velocity
C) Effect of cutting speed on tool life for HSS
D)Coated insert tool life
Tool failures usually occur for the following reasons
1. Improper grinding of tool angles
2. Loss of tool hardness
3. Breaking or spalling of tool edge
4. Natural wear and abrasion
5. Fracture of tool by heavy load
8.7 Surface Finish
A good surface finish is affected by many variables in single or multi
point machining.
The factor improving surface finish are light cuts, small feeds, high
cutting speed, cutting fluid, round nose tools and increased rake angle on
well ground tools.
Engineering properties such as fatique hardness, heat transfer and others
are affected by surface finish.
A diagramatic sketch is shown in figure 8.18 whereby a device that
provide a nondestructive surface examination is based on the light
section principle.
A model of the ideal surface is possible using the geometric analog. Two
tool geometries are shown in figure 20 becau of their popularity in
finishing operations.
The maximum surface roughness is given by
H max = f
Tan Cs + Cos Ce
f = Feed distance, in. (mm)
Cs = Side angle, degree (o)
Ce = End angle, degree (o)

For the tool shown in figure 8.20B, surface geometry results as follows:
H max = f2
8r
r = radius of the tool, in. (mm)
8.8 Cutting Speeds And Feeds
Cutting speed Vc is expressed in ft/min (m/s). Thus, cutting speed
measures the peripheral velocity of the lathe bar stock and milling cutter.
Cutting velocity is expressed by the formula
Vc = DN
12
Where , D = Diameter of the rotational workpiece, in (m).
N = Rotary speed of the workpiece, revolutions per minute
(rpm) = 12 Vc /D
The equivalent metric equation is given
Vc = DN / 60000
Where D = Diameter of the work, mm
Relationship of revolutios per minute to surface velocity, Vc = DN /12