HARMONIC FILTERS

HARMONIC REDUCTION
Many technologies are available and constantly being advanced
to control the harmonics at source.
Where the harmonic levels are low, the equipment can be
designed to withstand the effect of harmonics, for example,
transformers, cables, and motors can be derated.
Motors for PWM inverters can be provided with special
insulation to withstand high dudt, and the relays can be rms
sensing.
This may not be cost effective in most cases, and the deleterious
effects of harmonics cannot be entirely mitigated. Also the
harmonic injection at the PCC (Point of Common Coupling,may
exceed IEEE limits.
Some form of harmonic mitigation to control harmonic injection
at PCC is often required, unless the harmonic loads are small.
There are three major methodologies for limitation of harmonics:
1. Passive filters at suitable locations, preferably close to the
source of harmonic generation can be provided so that the
harmonic currents are trapped at the source and the harmonics
propagated in the system are reduced. For large harmonic
producing loads, that is, HVDC systems, FACTS controllers,
SVCs, TCRs, and passive filters are commonly applied.
2. Active filtering techniques, generally, incorporated with the
harmonic producing equipment itself can reduce the harmonic
generation at source. Hybrid combinations of active and passive
filters are also a possibility.
3. Alternative technologies can be adopted to limit the harmonics
at source, for example, phase multiplication, operation with
higher pulse numbers, converters with interphase reactors,
active wave-shaping techniques, multilevel converters, and
harmonic compensation built into the harmonic producing
equipment itself to reduce harmonic generation.
 Traditionally, passive power filters (PPFs) are used to reduce
harmonics and capacitors are generally employed to improve
the power factor of the AC loads.
In high power rating such as HVDC systems, they are very
much in use even nowadays due to simplicity, low cost, robust
structure, and benefits of meeting reactive power requirements
in most of the applications at fundamental frequency.
Moreover, they are also extensively used in hybrid
configurations of power filters, where the major portion of
filtering is taken care by passive filters.
In medium and low power ratings, especially in distribution
systems, the passive filters are used again because of their low
cost and simplicity
 PASSIVE FILTERS
Passive filters use passive components, such
as inductors, capacitors, and resistors.
These cannot increase the signal energy; the
frequency range for harmonic filters is limited
to approximately 3000 Hz. It is common to
characterize the frequency-selective filters
with respect to their passbands.
 Classification of Passive Filters
Passive filters can be classified based on the topology,
connection, and the number of phases.
The topology can be shunt, series, and hybrid and further
subclassified as tuned and damped to act as low-pass and
high-pass for shunt filters or to act as low-block and high-
block for series filters.
The PPFs may be connected in shunt, series, or a
combination of both for compensating different types of
nonlinear loads .
Other major classification is based on the number of
phases such as single-phase (two-wire) and three-phase
(three-wire or four-wire) PPFs with these supply systems.
Topology based classification
 PPFs can be classified based on
the topology used, for example,
tuned filters, damped filters, or a
combination of both. Figures
show the passive tuned filters for
shunt and series configurations
that are most widely used for the
elimination of current harmonics
and for reactive power
compensation.
These are mainly used at the load
end because current harmonics
are injected by nonlinear loads.
These inject equal compensating
currents, opposite in phase, to
cancel harmonics and/or reactive
components of the nonlinear load
current at the point of
connection. These can also
provide the reactive power in the
power system network for
improving the voltage profile.
 Figures show the passive
damped filters for shunt and
series configurations for
eliminating
all higher order harmonics.
These are connected before
the load either in shunt or in
series with the AC mains
depending upon the
requirements of the nonlinear
load for the elimination of
current harmonics and for
regulating the terminal voltage
of the load.
 Figure shows the hybrid passive
filters as a combination of tuned
and damped filters.
Another classification of hybrid
passive filters includes a
combination of shunt and series
filters. These are used in single-
phase as well as three-phase
configurations. These are
considered ideal PPFs that
eliminate voltage and current
harmonics and are capable of
providing clean power to critical
and harmonic-prone loads such
as computers and medical
equipment. These can balance
and regulate terminal voltages.
 Shunt Filters
Passive shunt filters are connected in parallel to harmonic-
producing loads to provide low-impedance paths for harmonic
currents so that these harmonic currents do not enter supply
systems and are confined to flow in the local passive circuits
preferably consisting of lossless passive elements such as inductors
(L) and capacitors (C) to reduce losses in the filter system.
Practically, capacitors may have very low internal power losses;
however, inductors have reasonable resistance and other losses
(core loss if the core is made of a ferromagnetic material).
Therefore, losses in the inductors cannot be neglected and are
considered as an equivalent resistance connected in series with the
inductors. It is also represented in terms of quality factor of the
inductor.
 It can be a notch filter sharply tuned at one particular frequency, which is
also known as a single tuned filter. It is a simple series RLC circuit, in which
R is the resistance of the inductor as shown in Figure 8.8a.
The value of the capacitor, also known as the size of the filter, is decided
by the reactive power requirements of the loads and its inductor value is
decided by the tuned frequency.
Therefore, these types of tuned or notch filters provide harmonic current
and voltage reduction and power factor correction because of capacitive
reactive power at fundamental frequency as this filter circuit behaves as
capacitive impedance at fundamental frequency.
The resistance of the reactor (inductor) decides the sharpness of tuning
and is responsible for limiting the harmonic current to flow in the passive
filter.
Normally, the notch filters are used at more than one tuned frequency and
may have more than one series RLC circuit for multiple harmonics.
 Sometimes two tuned filters are combined in one circuit. It
is known as a double tuned or double band-pass filter, as
shown in Figure 8.8c, having minimum impedance at both
the tuned frequencies.
The main use of the double tuned filter is in high-voltage
applications because of reduction in the number of
inductors to be subjected to full line impulse voltages.
More than two tuned filters (triple and quadruple) can also
be combined in one circuit, but no specific advantage is
achieved and there is difficulty in adjustment.
Moreover, more than two tuned filters are rarely used in
practice and only in a few applications.
 Other types of passive filters, shown in Figure 8.8b and
d, are known as high-pass filters that absorb all higher
order harmonics.
They are also known as damped filters as they provide
damping due to the presence of a resistor in the circuit.
These filters have higher losses, but fortunately at high
frequencies not much higher currents and power
losses are present in the loads. These can be first-order
simple series RCcircuits.
These help to improve the voltage profile at the point
of common coupling (PCC) even for very high
frequencies
 However, the passive filters have problems of
resonance with the source impedance, fixed
compensation, and poor power factor at light
loads due to excessive leading reactive power
injection
 Series Filters
Passive series filters are connected in
series with harmonic-producing loads
to provide high impedance for blocking
harmonic currents so that these
harmonic currents do not enter supply
systems and are confined to flow in
the local passive circuits preferably
consisting of parallel connected
lossless passive elements such as
inductors (L) and capacitors (C) to
reduce losses in the filter system. The
passive series filter is a simple parallel
LC circuit, as shown in Figures 8.4 and
8.6.
At fundamental frequency, the filter is
designed to offer very low impedance,
thereby allowing the fundamental
current with negligible voltage drop
and losses.
 Series filters are used to block single harmonic current such as third
harmonic current. These are used in small power ratings in single-phase
systems to block dominant third harmonic current. For blocking multiple
harmonic currents, multiple harmonic filters need to be connected in
series, as shown in Figures 8.4 and 8.6.
These may also have a high-block filter with a parallel LC circuit and a
resistance in series with the capacitor. Such a configuration of multiple
series connected filters has significant series voltage drop and losses at
fundamental frequency.
In addition, these filters must be designed to carry full rated load current
with overcurrent protection. Moreover, at fundamental frequency, these
consume lagging reactive power resulting in further voltage drop.
Hence, a shunt filter is much cheaper than a series filter for equal
effectiveness. Therefore, series filters are much less in use compared with
passive shunt filters.
 Hybrid Filters
Hybrid filters, consisting of series and shunt passive can be used in
many industrial applications.
As mentioned earlier, both passive shunt and passive series filters
have some drawbacks if they are used individually. However, a
passive hybrid filter consisting of a single tuned passive series filter
with a single tuned passive shunt filter and a high-pass passive shunt
filter offers very good filtering characteristics.
A single tuned passive series filter is able to block resonance
between the supply and the passive shunt filter and absorbs excess
reactive power of the passive shunt filter at light load conditions.
This type of hybrid passive filter offers very good filtering
characteristics under varying loads.
Supply System-Based Classification
This classification of the PPFs is based on the supply and/or
the load system, for example, single-phase (two-wire) and
three-phase (three-wire or four-wire) systems.
There are many nonlinear loads such as domestic
appliances connected to single-phase supply systems.
Some three-phase nonlinear loads are without neutral,
such as ASDs fed from three-wire supply systems. There are
many nonlinear single-phase loads distributed on three-
phase four-wire supply systems, such as computers and
commercial lighting.
Hence, PPFs may also be classified accordingly as two-wire,
three-wire, and four-wire PPFs.
 Two-Wire PPFs

Two-wire (single-phase)
PPFs are used in all three
modes, for example, series,
shunt, and a combination of
both.
 Three-Wire PPFs
Three-phase three-wire
nonlinear loads such as ASDs are
one of the major applications of
solid-state power converters and
lately many ASDs incorporate
passive filters in their front-end
design.
A large number of publications
have appeared on three-wire
PPFs with different
configurations.
All the configurations shown are
developed, in three-wire PPFs,
with three wires on the AC side
and rectifier type nonlinear load.
 Four-Wire PPFs
A large number of single-phase loads may be
supplied from the three-phase AC mains with a
neutral conductor. They cause excessive neutral
current, harmonic and reactive power burden,
and unbalance.
To reduce these problems, four-wire PPFs have
been developed. Figures 8.13 and 8.14 show
typical configurations of series and shunt PPFs.
Detailed comparisons of the features of the
passive filters are provided for different types of
nonlinear loads.
 Principle of Operation of Passive
Power Filters
The basic principle of operation of passive
power filters may be explained through their
objectives, locations, connections, quality,
sharpness, rating, size, cost, detuning,
applications, and other factors.
 Objectives
The main objective of passive filters is to
reduce harmonic voltages and currents in
an AC power system to an acceptable
level. The AC passive shunt filters also
provide the leading reactive power
required in most of the nonlinear loads.
The DC harmonic filters are used to
reduce only harmonics on the DC bus of
the load in the system.
The basic operating principle of a passive
shunt harmonic filter is to absorb
harmonic currents in a low-impedance
path realized using a tuned series LC
circuit as shown in Figure.
Similarly, the basic operating principle of
a passive series filter is to block harmonic
currents entering the AC network by a
passive tuned parallel LC circuit offering
high impedance for harmonic currents as
shown in Figure.
 Passive shunt filters are connected in parallel to
the load and rated for the system voltage at PCC,
whereas passive series filters are connected
between the AC line and the load and rated for
full load current.
The passive shunt connected circuit absorbs a
part of harmonic currents into it and a fraction of
harmonic currents still flows in the network.
Therefore, it only reduces harmonic currents and
does not completely eliminate them.
 Location of Harmonic Filters
Passive filters at suitable locations, preferably close to the source of
harmonic generation, can be provided so that much of the harmonic
currents are trapped at the source and the harmonics propagated to
the point of common coupling (PCC) are reduced.
Active filters, hybrid combination of active and passive filters, and
phase multiplication to reduce harmonic emission at the source
By reduction of harmonics at the source, the electrical equipment
need not be oversized, losses are minimized, voltage distortions are
reduced, the filters can be specifically sized for the loads.
Conversely, when filters are located away from the harmonic
producing loads, the harmonics must flow to the filter through
system impedances with the resultant derating of electrical
equipment.
Yet, it may not be practical or economical to provide filters at each
source of harmonic emission.
 Connection and Configuration
The passive filters are used in shunt, series, and
hybrid configurations.
The passive shunt filters, which are connected in
shunt or parallel to the harmonic-producing loads
or network, consist of series RLC circuits tuned at
slightly low frequency at which they absorb
harmonic currents.
For multiple harmonics, multiple tuned series RLC
circuits are used to absorb the harmonic currents.
 Sharpness of Tuning of Passive Filters
This is one of the important properties of the passive filters.
It is quantified in terms of a quality factor of the inductor
(Q) and is known as sharpness of tuning of the passive filter.
A passive shunt filter is considered to be tuned
corresponding to a frequency at which its inductive
reactance is equal to its capacitive reactance.
Passive shunt filters tuned at lower frequencies are sharply
tuned and have a high value of quality factor, typically 10
100 and preferably between 30 and 60.
Other types of passive shunt filters, known as damped
filters and high-pass filters, are tuned for high frequencies
and have a low value of quality factor, typically 0.55 and
preferably between 1 and 2.
 Cost of Passive Filters
The cost of the passive filter is reasonable and
sometimes it reaches 1520% of the equipment for
which it is used; therefore, the cost factor should be
taken into account while designing the passive filters.
Moreover, it has some power losses, which must also
be considered in its design. The cost of the passive
filter may also be partially supplemented to the
reactive power supplied by it.
The major part of the capital cost (about 60%) is the
cost of the power capacitors; therefore, a reasonable
cost reduction may be achieved by proper selection of
its capacitors.
 Analysis and Design of Passive Power
Filters
Estimate or record the input current frequency spectrum of the nonlinear load and its
displacement power factor.
Obtain the frequency response of the power distribution equivalent impedance at the PCC
where a passive filter is to be connected in the system.
Select the numbers, types, and tuned frequencies of passive filters (out of the tuned single,
double, triple, etc.; damped first order, second order, and C-type filters; normally a C-type
filter is recommended for low frequency and a high-pass filter for high frequency).
Appropriately assign the reactive power to be generated by each unit of the passive filter.
Estimate the parameters of each unit of the passive filter.
Evaluate the attenuation factor of each unit of the passive filter as a function of the frequency.
Check the existence of resonance frequencies of each unit of the passive filter.
If these resonance frequencies of passive filter units are close to current harmonics generated
by the nonlinear load, then change the tuned frequency of the filter and accordingly calculate
new parameters of the passive filter to avoid the parallel resonance with the supply system.
Validate the performance of the distribution system with filter scheme connected through
simulation,and estimate the harmonic distortion of voltage and current and displacement
power factor.
Iterate this design procedure of the passive filter till satisfactory performance is achieved for
the distribution system in terms of total harmonic distortion (THD) of the current and voltage
and power factor.
 Design of Passive Shunt Filters
The passive shunt filter basically consists of a series
combination of an inductor and a capacitor tuned to a
particular frequency and it acts as a low-impedance
path for that harmonic.
In a single-phase system, the third and fifth harmonic
filters are designed using a series tuned filter and a
high-pass filter is designed using a second-order
damped filter.
In a three-phase system, the fifth and seventh
harmonic filters are designed using a series tuned filter
and a high-pass filter is designed using a second-order
damped filter.
 Initially, the size of the capacitors is calculated
from the reactive power requirement (QC) of the
load.
The absolute value of capacitance (Cn) is
calculated as

where m is the number of branches in the passive

filter for all the phases, Vs is per-phase
fundamental voltage across it, and is the
fundamental frequency of the supply.
 To trap the nth harmonic current, the inductance
for the nth-order filter is calculated as

The series resistance for the inductor of the nth-

order filter is calculated as

where Qn is the quality factor of the inductor of the

nth-order filter, which is normally considered as 10
< Q < 100.
 Limitations of Passive Filters
The passive filters are not adaptable to varying system
conditions and remain rigid once they are installed in an
application. The size and tuned frequency cannot be altered
easily.
The change in operating conditions of the system may result in
detuning of the filter and it may cause increased distortion.
Such a change may happen undetected provided there is online
detection or monitoring in the system.
The design of the passive filter is reasonably affected by the
source impedance
The passive filters are designed with a large number of
elements and loss/damage of some of the elements may change
its resonance frequencies.
 Limitations of Passive Filters
The environmental effects such as aging,
deterioration, and temperature change and
detune the filters in a random manner.
The size of the damped filter becomes large in
handling the fundamental and harmonic
frequencies.
How Power Quality Affected by
Polluting Loads ?
 Main Power Quality Problems

Harmonics and Reactive Power

drawn by loads

Voltage sags, swells, unbalance etc.

 One Method of Quality Enhancement

Filters

Passive Active

Series Shunt Series Shunt

Series Filters and Shunt Filters
Series tuned circuit offers very high
impedance at harmonic frequency

Parallel tuned circuit offers very

low impedance at harmonic
frequency
 Passive Filters

Uses R,L,C components

Economical
 Active Filters
Injects harmonic currents (or voltages) out
of phase with the ambient harmonics

Expensive

Uses components such as switches and

amplifiers,

FACTS and Custom Power Devices for

power quality
 Active Filters (contd.)
Shunt Active Filter:

STATCOM

Series Active Filter :

Dynamic Voltage
Restorer(DVR)
 Active filters
Active power filtering techniques using power
semiconductor devices are used as an
alternative solution for passive filters.
The technology of active filtering is based
around realizing harmonics compensation by
generating an equal and opposite component
and injecting the same into the supply.
 Active Filters
In a typical active filter configuration, the
circuit with PWM inverter /amplifier senses
the harmonic content in either transmission
line or distribution feeder and injects equal and
opposite harmonics into the system under the
closed loop control.
The relatively bulky capacitors and bulky
passive filters can be eliminated by the use of
smart and compact active filter using PWM
inverter.
 AFs can be classified based on converter type,
topology, and the number of phases.
The converter type can be either CSI or VSI bridge
structure.
The topology can be shunt, series, or a
combination of both.
The third classification is based on the number of
phases, such as two-wire (single phase) and
three- or four-wire three-phase systems.
 Converter-Based Classification
There are two types of converters used in
the development of AFs.
Fig. 1 shows the current-fed pulse width
modulation (PWM) inverter bridge
structure. It behaves as a nonsinusoidal
current source to meet the harmonic
current requirement of the nonlinear
load.
A diode is used in series with the self
commutating device (IGBT) for reverse
voltage blocking.
However, GTO-based configurations do
not need the series diode, but they have
restricted frequency of switching. They
are considered sufficiently reliable but
have higher losses
Moreover, they cannot be used in
multilevel or multistep modes to
improve performance in higher ratings.
 The other converter used as an AF
is a voltage-fed PWM inverter
structure, as shown in Fig. 2.
It has a self-supporting dc voltage
bus with a large dc capacitor.
It has become more dominant,
since it is lighter, cheaper, and
expandable to multilevel and
multistep versions, to enhance the
performance with lower switching
frequencies.
It is more popular in UPS based
applications, because in the
presence of mains, the same
inverter bridge can be used as an
AF to eliminate harmonics of
critical nonlinear loads.
Active filters can be classified according to the
way these are connected in the circuit :
in series connection,
in parallel shunt connection, and
hybrid connections of active and passive
filters.
 Shunt Connection
A nonsinusoidal voltage can be corrected by
injecting proper harmonic current.
A harmonic current source is represented as a
Norton equivalent circuit, and it may be
implemented with a PWM inverter to inject a
harmonic current of the same magnitude as that
of the nonlinear load into the system, but of
harmonics of opposite polarity.
A shunt connection is shown in Fig.
The load current will be sinusoidal, so long as the
load impedance is higher than the source
impedance.
Shunt Active Filter
 Series Connection
Figure shows a series connection
A voltage Vf is injected in series with the line
and it compensates the voltage distortion
produced by a nonlinear load.
A series active filter is more suitable for
harmonic compensation of diode rectifiers
where the DC voltage for the inverter is
derived from a capacitor, which opposes the
change of the voltage.
 The filter is connected in series with a utility
feeder through a matching transformer and
compensates voltage harmonics generated by
the non linear loads.
This filter also does voltage regulation and
dampens the harmonic propagation caused by
resonance between the power factor correction
capacitor and the line impedance.
This presents a high impedance path to the
harmonic currents, there by preventing
harmonic currents to flow from the load to the
source and vice versa.
 Hybrid Filters

This is a combination of active and passive

filters.
The passive filters absorbs all the harmonics in
the load current.
The series /shunt filter in turn decouples the
utility from the non linear load and the passive
filter at the harmonic frequencies tunes the off
tuned passive filter for reactive power
compensation
 Fig. shows a unified power quality
conditioner (also known as a universal AF),
which is a combination of active shunt and
active series filters
The dc-link storage element (either inductor
or dc-bus capacitor is shared between two
currentsource or voltage-source bridges
operating as active series and active shunt
compensators.
It is used in single-phase as well as three-
phase configurations .
It is considered an ideal AF which eliminates
voltage and current harmonics and is capable
of giving clean power to critical and
harmonic-prone loads, such as computers,
medical equipment, etc.
It can balance and regulate terminal voltage
and eliminate negative-sequence currents. Its
main drawbacks are its large cost and control
complexity because of the large number of
solid-state devices involved.
 Fig. shows the hybrid filter,
which is a combination of an
active series filter and passive
shunt filter.
It is quite popular because the
solid-state devices used in the
active series part can be of
reduced size and cost (about
5% of the load size) and a
major part of the hybrid filter
is made of the passive shunt
LC filter used to eliminate
lower order harmonics.
It has the capability of
reducing voltage and current
harmonics at a reasonable
cost.
There are many more hybrid
configurations.
Shunt Active and Shunt Passive
Filter(a)
Series Active Filter and Shunt Passive
Filter(b)
Supply-System-Based Classification
This classification of AFs is based on the supply and/or the
load system having single-phase (two wire) and three-
phase (three wire or four wire) systems.
There are many nonlinear loads, such as domestic
appliances, connected to single-phase supply systems.
Some three-phase nonlinear loads are without neutral,
such as ASDs, fed from three-wire supply systems.
There are many nonlinear single-phase loads distributed on
four-wire three-phase supply systems, such as computers,
commercial lighting, etc. Hence, AFs may also be classified
accordingly as two-wire, three-wire, and four-wire types
 Two-Wire AFs:
Two-wire (single phase) AFs are used in all three
modes as active series, active shunt, and a
combination of both as unified line conditioners.
Both converter configurations, current-source
PWM bridge with inductive energy storage
element and voltage-source PWM bridge with
capacitive dc-bus energy storage elements, are
used to form two-wire AF circuits.
In some cases, active filtering is included in the
power conversion stage to improve input
characteristics at the supply end.
 Figs. show three configurations of active
series, active shunt, and a combination of
both with current-source bridge, using
inductive storage elements.
Similar configurations, based on a VSI bridge,
may be obtained by considering only two
wires (phase and neutral) at each stage of Fig.
Two-wire unied power quality
conditioner with current-source
converter
 Three-Wire AFs:
Three-phase three-wire nonlinear loads, such as
ASDs, are major applications of solid-state power
converters and, lately, many ASDs, etc., incorporate
AFs in their front-end design.
All the configurations shown in Fig are developed,
in three-wire AFs, with three wires on the ac side
and two wires on the dc side.
Active shunt AFs are developed in the current-fed
type or voltagefed type with single-stage or
multistep/multilevel and multiseries configurations.
Capacitor midpoint four-wire shunt AF

Entire neutral current ows

through dc-bus capacitors
which are of a large value
Three-bridge four-wire shunt AF

Allows proper voltage

matching for solid-state
devices and enhances
the reliability of the AF
system.
 These are an important part in Filters

They are divided into 3 stages

a) Sensing of Current AND Voltage.

b) Providing Compensating Commands.
c) Gate signal generation for devices of
active filters.
 SIGNAL CONDITIONING
-> Different instanstaneous values of voltage and
current are required here.
-> Sensing of voltages and currents is done.
-> The sensed parameters are useful for
monitoring,measurement,recording of various
parameters like THD ,TDD,Power factor etc.
->Current signals are detected by CT and Hall
Sensors.
-> Filtering is done to avoid noise problems.
 COMPENSATING SIGNALS
Generation is based on 2 methods-
a) Frequency Domain
b) Time Domain

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
->Control is based on Fourier Analysis or Fourier
Series of the distorted voltage or current wave
to get the compensating commands.
->The harmonic polluted and improper signals can
be removed.
-> Online implementation using Fourier Transform
are also possible for Large systems.

NOTE-
The switching freq of AF is kept twice of
HARMONIC freq for effective compensation.
(fs=2fh)
 TIME DOMAIN

-> This process is based on inst derivation of

commands in the form of voltage or current
signals from polluted ones.

Diff methods adopted

a) Pq theory--- alpha beta transformation.
b) Dq frame method
c) Flux based controller
d) Notch filter method.etc
 GATE SIGNALS
->3rd Stage of generation.

->To generate gate signals for devices of AF based

on compensating signals that are derived.

Diff methods used are-

-> Hysteresis based current control.
-> PWM control.
->Deadbeat control.
->Fuzzy based controletc
 SELECTION OF COMPONENTS
-> To achieve better performance selection of
components is essential.
->Earlier days BJT and MOSFET were used.
->Nowadays IGBT is used for medium ratings
and GTO for high ratings.
->Series inductor Lc is used as a buffer between
supply terminal voltage and PWM voltage
generated by AF.
Low value of Lc large ripples are injected.
High value of Lc-no proper tracking of
compensating signals.
->Passive ripple filter is used in supply system to
compensate for harmonics and improves THD.

Dc bus capacitor
Low value Large ripples and wide fluctuations in
bus voltage.
 High value of Cdc ---reduces ripples and
fluctuations but increases the cost and size.

Additional functions of Active filters

a) Compensation of reactive power.
b) Voltage flicker.
c) Voltage regulation.etc
TECHNICAL AND OTHER FACTORS
-> Factors like cost and complexity are included
here.
-> Due to this many configurations could not be
completed in earlier days.
-> Modern active filters are capable of
compensating higher order harmonics.
-> If higher order harmonics are small then
passive ripple filters can be used.
 SELECTION REQUIREMENTS

->Selection of AF for an application is an

important task for users and engineers.

Selection Categories-
a) Current based Compensation
b) Voltage based Compensation
c) Both Current and Voltage based.
 CURRENT BASED COMPENSATION
-> Divided into current harmonics, reactive power
compensation and load balancing .

-> Mainly used individually.

->Ideal device Active Shunt filter.

-> For reduction in cost and special applications

Active passive shunt filter is used.
Reactive power Compensation-

-> Special devices like STATCOM are used.

->Load Balancing is done by shunt filter in a 3

or 4 wire system.
 VOLTAGE BASED COMPENSATION
-> Known as Voltage Harmonic compensation

->Device used Active series filters.

-> Advantages
a) Improving voltage regulation.
b) Reducing sags and dips.
c) Voltage flicker-Active Shunt filter
 V and I COMPENSATION

->Combination of both methods provides best

results and a few applications require these.

-> Device used - Hybrid active series and shunt

filters.

-> UPQC---individual V OR I
compensation.(Mainly not used as cost,size
and rating is high)
 CONCLUSION
-> Overall performance of active filters was
studied.
->AF technology is developing day by day.
-> In future these will induce Customers using
non linear loads to use AF for maintaining PQ
standards.
-> Various Configurations have been developed
to compensate the problems in power system.
 UPFC
The Unified Power Flow Controller is capable
of independently controlling both the real and
reactive power flow in the line.
This capability of the UPFC is facilitated by its
power circuit which is basically an ac-to-ac
power converter, usually implemented by two
back-to-back de-to-de converters with a
common dc voltage link.
The output of one converter is coupled in
series, while the output of the other in shunt
with the transmission line.
IPFC
 The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC),
addresses the problem of compensating a
number of transmission lines at a given
substation.
Conventionally, series capacitive
compensation (fixed, thyristor-controlled or
SSSC-based) is employed to increase the
transmittable real power over a given line and
also to balance the loading of a normally
encountered multiline transmission system.
 The IPFC scheme, together with independently
controllable reactive series compensation of
each individual line, provides a capability to
directly transfer real power between the
compensated lines.
This capability makes it possible
to equalize both real and reactive power flow
between the lines,
To reduce the burden of overloaded lines by
real power transfer,
compensate against resistive line voltage drops
and the corresponding reactive power demand
Increase the effectiveness of compensating
system for dynamic disturbances.
Thus the IPFC can potentially provide a highly
effective scheme for power transmission
management at a multiline substation